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Wednesday, 29 June 2011
Wednesday, 27 April 2011
THE ADJECTIVE-2
THE ADJECTIVE(2)
CHAPTER-9
62. An adjective is a word used to qualify(or to add something to the meaning) of a Noun;as,
>) A beautiful girl.
>) This woman.
>) My pen.
>) Some bread.
>) Four boys.
63. Look at the following sentences:---
1. Raman was a brave boy.
2. Raman is brave.
*) In sentence 1, the Adjective brave comes immediately before the Noun it limits.
it is used as an epithet or attribute.It is ,therefore ,said to be used Attributively.
*) In sentence 2, the Adjective brave is used along with the Verb is and form part of the Predicate.
It is,therefore, said to be used Predicatively.
NOTE:--(1) Some Adjectives can be used only Predicatively;as,
>) She is quite well.
>) She is afraid of her mother-in-law.
(2) Adjectives are sometimes used Adverbially;as,
>) Do not talk so loud[=loudly]
KINDS OF ADJECTIVES
*) Adjectives are of the following kinds:--
64. Adjectives of Quality (or Descriptive,Adjectives) qualify or describe an object by telling us
of what quality,of what sort,or in what state the object is.
>) Afzal is a lazy boy.
>) He is a good man.
>) He has a black horse.
>) It was a golden opportunity.
>) The English Language is difficult to learn
>) I like the Turkish tobacco.
NOTE:--(1) Sometimes such Adjectives as English,Turkish,etc., which are formed from Proper Nouns are called Proper Adjectives.
(2). Adjectives of Quality answer the question:'Of what kind?'
65. Adjectives of Quantity qualify a Noun by showing the quantity of the thing names.They tell
us how much of a thing is intended.
>) He ate some rice.
>) He did not drink much milk.
>) He ate little bread.
>) HE has enough(or sufficient) bread.
>) He did not eat any bread.
>) He walked all the way(or the whole way) back.
>) Half a loaf is better than no bread.
>) He takes great care of his health.
NOTE:--Adjectives of Quantity answer the question:'How much?'
66. Adjectives of Number(or Numeral Adjectives) denote the number of persons or things named.
They show how many or in what order persons or things are taken.
>) A week has seven days.
>) Few boys like to work hard.
>) Many people think so.
>) All men must one day die.
>) Here are some pictures of you.
>) Most boys like to go to the cinema.
>) I warned him several times.
>) January is the first month os the year.
NOTE:--Adjectives of Number answer the question:'How many?' or"In what order?'
67. Adjectives of Number(or Numeral Adjectives) are sub-divided into two main clauses:--
1.Definite. 2.Indefinite.
(1) Definite Numeral Adjectives denote some exact number.Those which show how many things
there are,are called Cardinals;as,
>) One,two,three,four,five,six,seven,etc.
*) Those which show in what order a thing stands are called Ordinals;as,
>) First,second,third,fourth,fifth,sixth,seventh,etc.
(2) Indefinite Numeral Adjectives denote number of some kind,but do not show what the exact
number is;as,
[ All,some,no,many,few,most,several,sundry.]
>) All men are mortal.
>) Some men die young.
>) No man went there.
>) Many men ar poor.
>) Few men are rich.
>) Most girls like dolls.
>) Several boys came.
>) Sundry men came to see me.
68) Demostrative Adjectives point out which persons or things are meant.
[The word Demonstrative means'pointing out'.]
>) This man is braver than Bali.
>) That boy is lazy.
>) These mangoes are sweet.
>) Those mangoes are sour.
>) Such men are dangerous.
>) Yonder house is mine.
NOTE:--(1) Demonstrative Adjectives answer the question:'Which?'
(2) This and that are used with Singular Nouns;these and those with Plural Nouns.
69. Distributive Adjectives denote that the persons or things named in the sentence are taken singly
,separately or in separate lots.
>) Each man had three sons.
>) Every day has its task.
>) Either pen will do.
>) He took neither side.
NOTE:--(1) The important fact about these words is that they are all in the Singular Number.
(2) Either means a choice between two things only.Neither means no choice between two things.In
other words,either means this one or that one;neither means not this one ad not that one.
70. Interrogative Adjectives are used with Nouns to ask questions;as,
>) Which road leads to the station?
>) What kind os man is he?
>) Whose pen is this?
71. Emphasizing Adjectives are own and very;as,
>) I saw it with my own eyes.
>) This is the very man who killed the snake.
72. What is sometimes used as an Exclamatory Adjective;as,
>) What luck!
>) What a piece of work is man!
ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS:--
73. Adjectives are sometimes used as Nouns;as,
(1) Certain Adjectives ,preceded by the,can be used as Nouns in the Plural;as,
>) The rich[=rich people] often hate the poor[=poor people].
>) The righteous[=righteous people] shall flourish.
>) The wicked [=wicked people] shall perish.
>) The blind[=blind people] and the lame[=lame people] deserve our pity.
(2) Some Adjectives ,preceded by the ,denote some abstract quality;as,
>) He admires the good[=goodness]
>) He is a lover of the beautiful[=beauty in general].
>) The future[=futurty] is uncertain.
(3) Some Adjectives actully become Nouns and can be used both in the Singular and in the Plural;as,
Junior,Juniors;.....senior,seniors;.....mortal,mortals;.....inferior,inferiors;
superior,superiors;....elder,elders;....minor,minors;.....Indian,Indians....Italian,Italians.
(4) In certain phrases and idoms the Adjectives are used as Nouns;as,
>) He has left the city for good.
>) I will stand by you through thick and thin.
>) Slow and steady wins the race.
>) Set down your terms in black and white.
>) I intend to do this right or wrong.
>) He is going from bad or worse.
Exercise 14. Pick out the Adjectives in the following sentence,and say to which class each of them
belongs:--
>) The world is a happy place.
>) Lead is a heavy metal.
>) Our school has a large playground.
>) Several women attended the meeting.
>) These grapes are sour.
>) Lazy students fail.
>) Every dog has his day.
>) The cow is a useful animal.
>) The rose is a beautiful flower.
>) He is a man of few words.
>) I called her several times.
>) He did not get many marks.
>) Mind your own business.
>) Man is a wonderful animal.
>) Quinine is bitter,but honey is sweet.
>) Much cry,little wool.
>) It was a glorious victory.
>) Good wine needs no bush.
>) A small lea may sink a great ship.
>) All work no play makes a Jack a dull boy.
>) Empty vessels make much noise.
>) It is an ill wind that blows nobody any good.
>) A live ass is better than a dead lion.
>) A wise enemy is better that a foolish friend.
>) Neither party is quite right.
>) On either side of the roads tall trees grew.
>) Every citizen must do his duty.
>) Half a loaf is better than no bread.
>) The way was long, the wind was cold.
>) Such people are dangerous.
Exercise 15.Supply suitable Adjectives:--
>) Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was a ----leader.
>) The horse is a ----animal.
>) What a -----animal the elephant is!
>) India expects---man to do his duty.
>) Which is the---day of the week?
>) Rani is a ----singer...
>) Varanasi is a ---city.
>) Ah! what a -----mistake I made!
>) Which is the--way to the station?
>) We should always drink--water.
>) Swimming is a -----exercise.
>) There is---hope of victory.
>) Shakespeare wrote--plays.
>) Does your watch keep----time?
>) He is man of---words.
>) He has much money but very----sense.
>) This is a very---matter.
>) The---bird cathes the worm.
>) He died a ----death.
>) The rose has a ---scent.
CHAPTER-10
COMPARISON OF ADJETIVES:--
74. Read the following sentences:---
1). Ashok is a strong boy.
2). Ashok is stronger than Raman.
3). Arsalan is the strongest boy in the class.
In sentence 1, the Adjective strong merely tells us that Ashok possesses strength in him.
In sentence 2, the Adjective stronger tells us that Ashok's strength .compared with Raman's, is
greater.
In sentence 3.the Adjective strongest tells us that of all the boys Ashok's strength is the greatest.
*) The Adjective strong is said to be in the Positive Degree.The Positive Degree is the simple form
of the Adjective.It is used when no comparison is intended.
*) The adjective stronger is said to be in th Comparative Degree.The Comparative Degree denotes
a higher degree of the quality than the Positive.It is used when two things are compared.
*) The Adjective strongest is said to be in the Superlative Degree.The Superlative Degree denotes
the highest quality.It is used when more than two things are compared.The Definite Article the
should always be used before an Adjective in the Superlative Degree.
NOTE:--There is another way in which things can be compared.Instead of saying 'Ashok is stronger
than Raman', we can say," Raman is less strong than Ashok".
WAYS OF FORMING COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE:--
75. The following are the rules for the formation or Comparative and Superlative Degrees:--
(1) Most Adjectives of one syllable,and some Adjectives of two syllables,form the Comparative by
adding er and the Superlative by adding est to the Positive.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
*) Brief *) briefer *) briefest
*) Clever *) cleverer *) cleverest
*) Great *) greater *) greatest
*) Loud *) louder *) loudest
*) Short *) shorter *) shortest
*) Small *) smaller *) smallest
*) Thick *) thicker *) thickest
(2) If the Positive ends in e,only r and st added.
*) Brave *) braver *) bravest
*) Large *) larger *) largest
*) Noble *) nobler *) noblest
*) True *) truer *) truest
*) Wise *) wiser *) wisest
(3) If the Positive ends in one consonant is preceded by a short vowel ,the final consonant is doubled,
,when er and est are added.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
>) Fat >) fatter >) fattest
>) Fit >) fitter >) fittest
>) Hot >) hotter >) hottest
>) Red >) redder >) reddest
>) Sad >) sadder >) saddest
>) Thin >) thinner >) thinnest
>) Wet >) wetter >) wettest
(4) If the Positive ends in y and the y is preceded by a consonant,the y is changed into i,when er
and est are added.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
*) Happy *) happier *) happiest
*) Heavy *) heavier *) heaviest
*) Lazy *) lazier *) laziest
*) Merry *) merrier *) merriest
*) Wealthy *) wealthier *) wealthiest
(5) If the y is preceded by a vowel,the y is not changed into i.
*) Gay gayer gayest
*) Grey greyer greyest
76. Most Adjectives of two syllables and all Adjectives of more than two syllables form their
Comparative by adding more and their Superlative by adding most.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
*) Beautiful *) more beautiful *) most beautiful
*) Courageous *) more courageous *) most courageous
*) Intelligent *) more intelligent *) most intelligent
*) Magnificent *) more magnificent *) most magnificent
*) Splendid *) more splendid *) most splendid
*) Mary is more beautiful than Pinky.
*) Rosy is the most beautiful of all the girls.
*) Raman is more intelligent than Ashok.
*) Karan is the most intelligent boy in the class.
77. Some Adjectives form their Comparatives and Superlatives in an irregulart way.
*)Bad,ill,evil *) worse *) worst
*) Fore *) former *) foremost,first
*) Good,well *) better *) best
*) Hind *) hinder *) hindmost
*) Late *) later,latter *) latest,last
*) Little *) less,lesser *) least
*) Much(quantity) *) more *) most
*) Many(number) *) more *) most
*) Nigh *) nigher *) nighest,next
*) Old *) older,elder *) oldest,eldest
78.THERE ARE FIVE WORDS WHICH ARE Adverbs in the Positive ,but Adjectives in the Comparative and Superlative.
*) Far *) farther *) farthest
*) Fore *) further *) furthest
*) In *) inner *) innermost,inmost
*) Out *) outer,utter *) uttermost,utmost
*) Up *) upper *) uppermost,upmost
CORERCT USAGE:--
79. The following Comparatives(borrowed from Latin) that end in -or are followed by to instead of
than.
*) Inferior.-----He is inferior to Bali in intelligence.
*) Superior.----English goods are superior to Japanese goods.
*) Junior.------He is junior to all his friends.
*) Senior.------All his friends are senior to him.
*) Prior.-------This event took place prior to the Second World War.
*) Anterior.---This event is anterior to[earlier than] that.
*) Posterior.--This event is posterior to[later than] that.
80. The following Comparatives that end in -or have no Positive or Superlative Degree.They have
lost their Comparative force,and are now used as Positive Adjectives.
*) Interior,....Exterior,....Major,....Minor,....Ulterior.
>) The interior wall of the house is made of wood.
>) The exterior wall of the house is made of stone.
>) It is a fact of minor importance.
>) I had no ulterior motive in offering her help.
81. The following English Comparatives have lost their Comparative force,and are now used as
Positive Adjectives.They ar not followd by than.
*) Former,...Latter,...Inner,...Outer,...Utter,...Elder.
>) He was followed by a dog and a cat;the former had the black tail and the latter had the white
tail.
>) His is the inner room;mine is the outer.
>) He is an utter fool.
>) Of the two brothers Jack is the elder.
82. Positive Degree---When two persons or things are said to be equal in respect of some quality,we
use the Positive Degree with as..as,or with some equivalent phrase;as,
*) This boy is as industrious as that.
*) This boy is no less industrious than that.
*) That boy is not more industrious than this.
83. Comparative Degree.---The Comparative Adjectives are followed by than when opposition is
implied, and they re followed by of when selection is meant;as,
*) Ashok is wiser than Raman. *) Ashok is wiser of the two.
84. When two persons or things are compared with each other,we must use the word other to
exclude the former;as,
*) Asoka was wiser than any other king.
*) Iron is more useful than any other metal.
We must not say----
*) Asoka was wiser than any king.
*) Iron is more useful than any metal.
because it means the same thing as saying..'Asoka was wiser than Asoka',
..'Iron is more useful than iron',
since,'Asoka is himslef a king' and 'iron is itself a metal'.
85. Superlative Degree,---When one person or thing is said to surpass all other persons or things of
the same kind,we use the Superlative Degree with the...of;as,
*) This boy is the most intelligent of all.
NOTE:--The Superlative Degree can also be expressed by the Comparative,in the following way:--
*) This boy is more intelligent than all other boys.
*) If this mode of expression is used,care must be taken not to leave out the word other;
for there is no sense in saying," This boy is more intelligent than all boys."
86. Double Comparatives and Superlatives must not be used;as,
*) Incorrect.--He is more wiser than Anil.
*) Correct.---He is wiser than Anil.
*) Incorrect.--He is the most strongest man in the village.
*) Corerct.----He is the strongest man in the village.
NOTE:--Lesser,however,is used even by the best authors;as,
'Choose the lesser of the two evils.'
SOME MISCELLANEOUS MISTAKES:--
87. Study carefully the following examples:---
WRONG(w) :- RIGHT(R):--
W) I do not like these kind of books. R) I do not like this kind of books or
[books of this kind].
W) I do not like these sort of people. R) I do not like this sort of people or
[ people of this sort]
W) Iron is more useful than any metal. R) Iron is more useful than any other metal.
W) Rajiv is cleverer than any student. R) Rajiv is cleverer than any other student.
W) Solomon was the wisest of all other R) Solomon was the wisest of all men or
men. [Solomon was wiser than all other men].
W) I have read the two first chapters of R) I have read the first two chapters of this book.
this book.
W) The three first chapters of this novel R) The first three chapters of this novel are
are interesting. interesting.
W) Sanjaya gets a less salary. R) Sanjaya gets a smaller salary.
W) Ranjit is my older brother. R) Ranjit is my elder brother.
W) He is elder than Raman. R) He is older than Raman.
W) No less than forty soldiers R) No fewer than forty soldiers were killed.
were killed.
W) He does not sell fewer than ten R) He does not sell less than ten kilos of sugar.
kilos of sugar.
W) Healh is more preferable than R) Health is preferable to wealth.
wealth.
W) The population of Tokyo is R) The population of Tokyo is greater than that of
greater than any town of India. any town in India.
W) Both boys have not come. R) Neither boy has come.
W) This is the completest book. R) This is a complete book on English Grammer.
on English Grammer.
W) My both eyes are bad. R) Both my eyes are bad.
W) Her all books were stolen. R) All her books were stolen.
Exercise 16. Pick out the Adjectives and name the Degree of Comparison of each:--
>) Suresh is the laziest boy in the class.
>) There is much to be said on both sides.
>) Small people love to talk of great men.
>) Hunger is the best sauce.
>) Solomon was the wisest king that ever lived.
>) Make less noise.
>) No news is good news.
>) That old man had seen happier days.
>) He wastes less time and takes more trouble.
>) Love is the greatest thing in the world.
>) A live ass is better than dead lion.
>) Lead is heavier than any other metal.
>) He thinks he is wiser than his father.
>) I congratulated him on his brilliant success.
>) Forgiveness is nobler than revenge.
>) The Himalayas are the highest mountains in the world.
>) Those poor beggars are weak and hungry.
>) The longest lane has a turning.
>) This is the elder of my two daughters.
>) It was the happiest moment of my life.
Exercise 17. Supply the proper form(Comparative or Superlative) of the Adjective:--
>) Little.----This is the----price I can take.
>) Dear.----Honour is-----to him than life.
>) Pretty.--Her oll is------than yours.
>) Rich.----He is the------man in the town..
>) Hot.-----June is the----month of the year.
>) Clever.-Jack is the----boy in the class.
>) Bad.----My cold is----today than it was yesterday.
>) Idle.----Bali is the-----boy in the class.
>) Tall.----She is the-----of the two.
>) Big.----London is the--city in the world.
>) Good.-Open rebuke is-than secret love.
>) Proud.-It was the-------moment of my life.
>) Intelligent.-Who is the --boy in the class.
>) Good.----The public is the----judge.
>) Useful.---Iron is------than copper.
>) Old.------My uncle is---than my aunt.
>) Mighty.-The pen is---- than sword.
>) Ferocious.---The tiger is the ---- of all animals.
>) Much.--------Some people have-----money than brains.
>) Good.--------Prevention is-----------than cure.
>) Bad.----------Time makes the---------enemies friends.
>) Heavy.-------Lead is-------than any other metal.
>) Little.--------Of the two evils choose the-------.
>) High.--------The-----buildings are found in America.
>) Easy.-------It is to----preach than to practise.
Exercise 18. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences:--
>) Lead is heavier------any other metal.
>) I am senior---------him by tow years.
>) He is inferior------Ashok in intelligence.
>) A wise enemy is better-----a foolish friend.
>) He is the bravest-----all men in the village.
>) This cloth is superior------that.
>) He is junior---- me in service.
>) This happened prior--- the Second World War.
>) He is the wiser------ the two.
>) This pearl is superior-----that.
Exercise 19. Correct the following sentences.:--
>) Let each boy look after their books.
>) Give me either of the four.
>) Those kind of men are not to be trusted.
>) He likes gambling,and all those sort of things.
>) Neither of the three boys have returned.
>) She had seen more happier days.
>) My brother is elder than yours.
>) She is the most wisest women I have ever come across.
>) His horse ran the faster of all.
>) This book is the best of the two.
>) Character is more preferable than gold.
>) Our captian is a better bowler.
>) Rama's intelligence is superior than Mohan's.
>) He is inferior than you in intelligence.
>) He is the eldest boy in the class.
>) He is more better than you think.
>) Satish is my oldest son.
>) The two first chapters of this novel are other dull.
>) Gold is more precious than any metal.
>) Solomon was the wisest of all other men.
>) The climate of Poona is better than Bombay.
>) Shakespeare is greater than any dramatist.
>) Kamala is the eldest of the two sisters.
>) He is stronger than any boy in the class.
>) This is the wisest course of the two.
Exercise 20. Express the meaning of the following sentences by means of the Comparative:--
{ Model: Karan is the strongest of all boys.(Superlative) }
{ Karan is stronger than all other boys.(Comparative) }
>) Lead is the heaviest of all metals.
>) America is the richest of all countries.
>) Kalidas is the greatest of all dramatists.
>) The tiger is the most ferocious of all animals.
>) London is the largest of all cities.
>) Sita is the wisest of all girls.
>) Sakuntala is the best drama in Sanskrit.
>) Jawaharlal Nehru was the most popular of all leaders.
>) Akbar was the wisest of all the Moghul emperors.
>) Napoleon was the bravest of all generals.
CHAPTER-9
THE CORRECT USE OF SOME ADJECTIVES:--
88. Later,latter;... latest,last--->>Later and latest refer to time.
latter and last refer to order or position.
>) This is a latter edition of the book than that.
>) This is the latest news.
>) What is the latest score?
>) What is the latest score?
>) Smith and Jones went together.The former was a painter,the latter and artist.
>) This is the last boy in the class.
>) This is your last chance to win the prize.
89. Elder,older;...eldest,oldest.--->>Elder and eldest are used of persons only;they denote the
the position of one member of a family with refernce to another or others of the
same family.'Elder' is never followed by'than'.
"Older and oldest are used of both persons and things".
>) He is my elder brother.
>) Raman is Ashok's eldest brother.
>) His eldest son is a a doctor.
>) He is older than his sister.
>) He is the oldest man in the village.
>) This is the oldest tree in the grove.
>) This is the oldest temple in the village.
90. Farther,further.---Farther denotes a greater distance between two points.
Further means something additional.
>) Bombay is farther from Delhi than Calcutta is.
>) Let us walk a little farther.
>) I will do this without further delay.
>) He may continue until further orders.
91. Nearet,next.---Nearest denotes nearness in space or distance.
Next denotes order or position.
>) We took the thief to the nearest police-station.
>) This street is the nearest to my house.
>) Mohan lives in the next house.
>) She was sitting next to me.
92. Some ,any.---To express quantity some is used in affirmative sentences.
Any in negtive sentences.
>) There is some ink in the bottle.
>) I gave him some butter.
>) There is not any ink in the bottle.
>) I did not give him any butter.
NOTE:- Any and Some can both be used in interrogative sentences;as,
>) Will you give me some sugar?
>) Will you have some tea?
>) Have you any money?
>) Did you give him any mangoes?
93. Each,every;--either,neither.--> Each means one of two things or one of any number exceeding
two;every is never used in speaking of one of two,but is always
used in speaking of some number exceeding two;as,
>) Every man wishes to be happy.
>) India expects every man to do his duty.
>) The two soldiers had each a gun.
>) Five boys stood in each row.
*) Either has two meanings:(1) one of two,or.....(2) each of two--that is, both.
*) Neither is the negative of either and means neither the one nor the other.
>) You can go by either road[by one road or the other].
>) On either side[both sides] of the road the trees grew.
>) He took neither side [neither this side nor that].
94. Much,many.-->Much means 'a large quantity of'( it is use before uncountable nouns).
Many means ' a large number of(' used before plural countable nouns').
>) There is not much tea in the pot.
>) He has not many friends.
It wil be notices that the examples above are preceded by not..This is because in purely affirmative sentences much and many are generally replaced by such expressions as;
*) Much is replaces by:--
A great deal of : a good deal of : a large quantity of : plenty of : a lot of .
*) Many is replaced by:--
A great many : a good many : a large number of : plenty of : a lot of.
>) He has a lot of(or plenty of) money.[Instead of: He has much money.]
>) We have a lot of( or plenty of) time.[ Instead of: We have much time.]
>) He has a lot of(or a large number of) friends.[ Instead of: He has many friends]
Much and Many may be correctly used in the following cases:---
(a) In negative sentences;as,
>) He hasn't much money.
>) She hasn't many frinds in the town.
(b) In general questions(questions to which the answers is"Yes " or " No").
>) Has he much money?
>) Has she many friends in the town?
NOTE:--Many ''a" used with a Noun and Verb in the Singular,but has in reality a Plural
meaning
Ex:- Many a young man was killed in the battle.
95. Little, a little, the little.---Little means hardly any or not much.It has a negative meaning.
>) There is little milk in the bottle.
>) There is little[practicallyno] hope of his recovery
*) A little denotes some atleast.It has a positive meaning.
>) There is a little hope of his success
>) He has a little money left in the bank.
>) A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
*) The little denotes the small quantity.It has both a positive and negative meaning.
>) He spent the little money he had.
It means:--
>) The money he had was not much.( Negative)
>) He spent all the money he had.( Postive)
NOTE:--Little is used before uncountable nouns.Little ,expect whn preceded by very,is seldom
used in the affirmative.Instead of little we use not much.Instead of:'I have little time',
we usually say:'I haven't much time.'
*) But we say----'I have very little time.'
96. Few ,a few,the few.---Few denotes not many.It has a negative meaning.
>) Few people live to be 100 and fewer still live to be 110.
>) He is a man of few words.
>) Few men can keep a secret.
>) Few people are free from faults.
*) A few denotes some atleast---a small number,however few.It has a positive meaning.
>) He has a few friends in the United States.
>) A few men live a pious life.
*) The few denotes not many.It has both a positive and negative meaning.
>) He gave me the few clothes he had.
>) He lost the few friends he had.
It means:---
>) The friends he had were not many.(Negative)
>) He lost all the friends he had.(Positive)
NOTE:--Few is used before countable nouns.Few ,expect when preceded by very,is seldom in the
affirmative.Instead we use not many.Instead of:'She ate few apples', we usually say:
'She did not eat many apples.' But we say:'Very few people know about this.'
97. Less,fewer.--Less is used with reference to quantity;
Fewer with reference to number.
>) This box weighs no less than forty pounds.
>) I have less money than you.
>) No fewer than forty soldiers were wounded.
>) No fewer than two thousand people were there.
Exercise 21. Fill in the blanks with Some or Any:--
>) I dont't want------tea,thank you.
>) -------Pen will do.
>) Has he procured------bread?
>) Did you see----girls there?
>) I saw----boys playing in the field.
>) I didn't see----apples in the market.
>) There is-----tea in the kitchen,but there isn't----milk.
>) We had----- tea but there wasn't---sugar to put in it.
>) "Will you please lend me--------money?" " I am sorry I haven't----- money".
Exercise 22. Fillin the blanks with Much or Many:--
>) I didn't see-----birds on the tree.
>) She didn't spend-------money on her daughter's marriage.
>) Not-----men were present there.
>) There is not----milk in the jug.
>) There were not----women in the bus.
>) Were there---people present?
>) Has he-----friends in the town?
>) That isn't of-------use.
>) -------people think so.
>) Did you have------difficulty in finding the house?
Exercise 23. Fill in the blanks with Farther or Further:---
>) I have nothing-----to say.
>) Delhi is------ from Bombay than Surat.
>) Until ----- orders,you act as Headmaster of the school.
>) I shall see him without----delay.
>) We cant't go any----without a rest.
>) A ------reason exists.
Exercise 24. Fill in the balnks with Nearest or Next:---
>) The thief eas taken to the------police-station.
>) Mohan's house is-------to mine.
>) My house is-----to the river.
>) She sat-----to me.
>) The -------- railway station is six kilometers from here.
>) My brother lives in the---house.
>) This street is the-----to my house.
Exercise 25. Fill in the blanks with Little, A Little ,or The little:---
>) ----drops os water make a mighty ocean.
>) He has------ sense.
>) He takes----interest in me.
>) He has----money with him.
>) ----strength he had in him proved useless.
>) ------money he had was all stolen.
>) ------tach would have saved the situation.
>) He has----appreciation of good music.
Exercise 26. Fill in the blanks with Few, A few,or The few:---
>) -------villages in India have hospitals.
>) -------books she had were all stolen.
>) He had read------ books.
>) ------friends she has are all sincere.
>) -----men can resist the temptation of god.
>) -------day's rest will do you immense good.
>) -------suggections she gave were all carried out.
>) Can you tell me in------words how the accident occurred?
>) ------words spoken in earnest will convince her.
>) ------ornaments she has are not worth much.
Exercise 27. Fill in the blanks with Latter,later,Latest or Last:----
>) Mohan and Sohan went together. The former was a painter,the------- a mechanic.
>) This is the ------news.
>) The ------chapter of this book is very dull.
>) The-------man in the row was my uncle.
>) He was the -----boy to get the prize.
>) All his friends accepted the----proposal.
>) He came-----than I expected.
>) At a -----date, he was placed in charge of the district.
>) What is the------information?
>) The ------chapters of this book are carelessly written.
Exercise 28. Fill in the blanks with Elder,Older,Eldest,or Oldest:----
>) HE is the-------than his cousin.
>) She is the------woman in our village.
>) This is the------temple in Kashmir.
>) He is my-----brother.
>) He is the------of the two brothers.
>) He is------ than I am.
>) Balu is the-----boy in the class.
>) Ashok is his-------son.
>) Of the two sisters Kamala is the -------.
>) His-------son is an engineer.
Exercise 29. Fill in the blanks with Each,Every,Either ,or Neither:----
>) ---------of the two boys was fined.
>) ---------seat in the hall was occupied.
>) ---------man wants to rise in the world.
>) --------accusation is true.
>) ------ soldier was at his post.
>) --------side won.
>) ---------day has its duties.
>) She visited us------three dayz.
>) Five boys stood in------row.
>) You can take-----side.
>)--------boy must take his turn.
>)--------boy was given a prize.
>) ---------pen will do.
>) --------knife is of any use.
>) On ------occasion I just missed the target.
Exercise 30. Fill in the blanks with Fewer or Less:--
>) There are------mistakes in your composition than in Ashok's.
>) There are-----eggs on this plate than on that.
>) There is------milk in the jug than in the glass.
>) There is------butter on this bread than on that.
>) No---------than forty workers were absent through illness.
>) There is------money in the purse than in the bag.
>)-------size means-------weight
CHAPTER-9
62. An adjective is a word used to qualify(or to add something to the meaning) of a Noun;as,
>) A beautiful girl.
>) This woman.
>) My pen.
>) Some bread.
>) Four boys.
63. Look at the following sentences:---
1. Raman was a brave boy.
2. Raman is brave.
*) In sentence 1, the Adjective brave comes immediately before the Noun it limits.
it is used as an epithet or attribute.It is ,therefore ,said to be used Attributively.
*) In sentence 2, the Adjective brave is used along with the Verb is and form part of the Predicate.
It is,therefore, said to be used Predicatively.
NOTE:--(1) Some Adjectives can be used only Predicatively;as,
>) She is quite well.
>) She is afraid of her mother-in-law.
(2) Adjectives are sometimes used Adverbially;as,
>) Do not talk so loud[=loudly]
KINDS OF ADJECTIVES
*) Adjectives are of the following kinds:--
64. Adjectives of Quality (or Descriptive,Adjectives) qualify or describe an object by telling us
of what quality,of what sort,or in what state the object is.
>) Afzal is a lazy boy.
>) He is a good man.
>) He has a black horse.
>) It was a golden opportunity.
>) The English Language is difficult to learn
>) I like the Turkish tobacco.
NOTE:--(1) Sometimes such Adjectives as English,Turkish,etc., which are formed from Proper Nouns are called Proper Adjectives.
(2). Adjectives of Quality answer the question:'Of what kind?'
65. Adjectives of Quantity qualify a Noun by showing the quantity of the thing names.They tell
us how much of a thing is intended.
>) He ate some rice.
>) He did not drink much milk.
>) He ate little bread.
>) HE has enough(or sufficient) bread.
>) He did not eat any bread.
>) He walked all the way(or the whole way) back.
>) Half a loaf is better than no bread.
>) He takes great care of his health.
NOTE:--Adjectives of Quantity answer the question:'How much?'
66. Adjectives of Number(or Numeral Adjectives) denote the number of persons or things named.
They show how many or in what order persons or things are taken.
>) A week has seven days.
>) Few boys like to work hard.
>) Many people think so.
>) All men must one day die.
>) Here are some pictures of you.
>) Most boys like to go to the cinema.
>) I warned him several times.
>) January is the first month os the year.
NOTE:--Adjectives of Number answer the question:'How many?' or"In what order?'
67. Adjectives of Number(or Numeral Adjectives) are sub-divided into two main clauses:--
1.Definite. 2.Indefinite.
(1) Definite Numeral Adjectives denote some exact number.Those which show how many things
there are,are called Cardinals;as,
>) One,two,three,four,five,six,seven,etc.
*) Those which show in what order a thing stands are called Ordinals;as,
>) First,second,third,fourth,fifth,sixth,seventh,etc.
(2) Indefinite Numeral Adjectives denote number of some kind,but do not show what the exact
number is;as,
[ All,some,no,many,few,most,several,sundry.]
>) All men are mortal.
>) Some men die young.
>) No man went there.
>) Many men ar poor.
>) Few men are rich.
>) Most girls like dolls.
>) Several boys came.
>) Sundry men came to see me.
68) Demostrative Adjectives point out which persons or things are meant.
[The word Demonstrative means'pointing out'.]
>) This man is braver than Bali.
>) That boy is lazy.
>) These mangoes are sweet.
>) Those mangoes are sour.
>) Such men are dangerous.
>) Yonder house is mine.
NOTE:--(1) Demonstrative Adjectives answer the question:'Which?'
(2) This and that are used with Singular Nouns;these and those with Plural Nouns.
69. Distributive Adjectives denote that the persons or things named in the sentence are taken singly
,separately or in separate lots.
>) Each man had three sons.
>) Every day has its task.
>) Either pen will do.
>) He took neither side.
NOTE:--(1) The important fact about these words is that they are all in the Singular Number.
(2) Either means a choice between two things only.Neither means no choice between two things.In
other words,either means this one or that one;neither means not this one ad not that one.
70. Interrogative Adjectives are used with Nouns to ask questions;as,
>) Which road leads to the station?
>) What kind os man is he?
>) Whose pen is this?
71. Emphasizing Adjectives are own and very;as,
>) I saw it with my own eyes.
>) This is the very man who killed the snake.
72. What is sometimes used as an Exclamatory Adjective;as,
>) What luck!
>) What a piece of work is man!
ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS:--
73. Adjectives are sometimes used as Nouns;as,
(1) Certain Adjectives ,preceded by the,can be used as Nouns in the Plural;as,
>) The rich[=rich people] often hate the poor[=poor people].
>) The righteous[=righteous people] shall flourish.
>) The wicked [=wicked people] shall perish.
>) The blind[=blind people] and the lame[=lame people] deserve our pity.
(2) Some Adjectives ,preceded by the ,denote some abstract quality;as,
>) He admires the good[=goodness]
>) He is a lover of the beautiful[=beauty in general].
>) The future[=futurty] is uncertain.
(3) Some Adjectives actully become Nouns and can be used both in the Singular and in the Plural;as,
Junior,Juniors;.....senior,seniors;.....mortal,mortals;.....inferior,inferiors;
superior,superiors;....elder,elders;....minor,minors;.....Indian,Indians....Italian,Italians.
(4) In certain phrases and idoms the Adjectives are used as Nouns;as,
>) He has left the city for good.
>) I will stand by you through thick and thin.
>) Slow and steady wins the race.
>) Set down your terms in black and white.
>) I intend to do this right or wrong.
>) He is going from bad or worse.
Exercise 14. Pick out the Adjectives in the following sentence,and say to which class each of them
belongs:--
>) The world is a happy place.
>) Lead is a heavy metal.
>) Our school has a large playground.
>) Several women attended the meeting.
>) These grapes are sour.
>) Lazy students fail.
>) Every dog has his day.
>) The cow is a useful animal.
>) The rose is a beautiful flower.
>) He is a man of few words.
>) I called her several times.
>) He did not get many marks.
>) Mind your own business.
>) Man is a wonderful animal.
>) Quinine is bitter,but honey is sweet.
>) Much cry,little wool.
>) It was a glorious victory.
>) Good wine needs no bush.
>) A small lea may sink a great ship.
>) All work no play makes a Jack a dull boy.
>) Empty vessels make much noise.
>) It is an ill wind that blows nobody any good.
>) A live ass is better than a dead lion.
>) A wise enemy is better that a foolish friend.
>) Neither party is quite right.
>) On either side of the roads tall trees grew.
>) Every citizen must do his duty.
>) Half a loaf is better than no bread.
>) The way was long, the wind was cold.
>) Such people are dangerous.
Exercise 15.Supply suitable Adjectives:--
>) Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was a ----leader.
>) The horse is a ----animal.
>) What a -----animal the elephant is!
>) India expects---man to do his duty.
>) Which is the---day of the week?
>) Rani is a ----singer...
>) Varanasi is a ---city.
>) Ah! what a -----mistake I made!
>) Which is the--way to the station?
>) We should always drink--water.
>) Swimming is a -----exercise.
>) There is---hope of victory.
>) Shakespeare wrote--plays.
>) Does your watch keep----time?
>) He is man of---words.
>) He has much money but very----sense.
>) This is a very---matter.
>) The---bird cathes the worm.
>) He died a ----death.
>) The rose has a ---scent.
CHAPTER-10
COMPARISON OF ADJETIVES:--
74. Read the following sentences:---
1). Ashok is a strong boy.
2). Ashok is stronger than Raman.
3). Arsalan is the strongest boy in the class.
In sentence 1, the Adjective strong merely tells us that Ashok possesses strength in him.
In sentence 2, the Adjective stronger tells us that Ashok's strength .compared with Raman's, is
greater.
In sentence 3.the Adjective strongest tells us that of all the boys Ashok's strength is the greatest.
*) The Adjective strong is said to be in the Positive Degree.The Positive Degree is the simple form
of the Adjective.It is used when no comparison is intended.
*) The adjective stronger is said to be in th Comparative Degree.The Comparative Degree denotes
a higher degree of the quality than the Positive.It is used when two things are compared.
*) The Adjective strongest is said to be in the Superlative Degree.The Superlative Degree denotes
the highest quality.It is used when more than two things are compared.The Definite Article the
should always be used before an Adjective in the Superlative Degree.
NOTE:--There is another way in which things can be compared.Instead of saying 'Ashok is stronger
than Raman', we can say," Raman is less strong than Ashok".
WAYS OF FORMING COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE:--
75. The following are the rules for the formation or Comparative and Superlative Degrees:--
(1) Most Adjectives of one syllable,and some Adjectives of two syllables,form the Comparative by
adding er and the Superlative by adding est to the Positive.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
*) Brief *) briefer *) briefest
*) Clever *) cleverer *) cleverest
*) Great *) greater *) greatest
*) Loud *) louder *) loudest
*) Short *) shorter *) shortest
*) Small *) smaller *) smallest
*) Thick *) thicker *) thickest
(2) If the Positive ends in e,only r and st added.
*) Brave *) braver *) bravest
*) Large *) larger *) largest
*) Noble *) nobler *) noblest
*) True *) truer *) truest
*) Wise *) wiser *) wisest
(3) If the Positive ends in one consonant is preceded by a short vowel ,the final consonant is doubled,
,when er and est are added.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
>) Fat >) fatter >) fattest
>) Fit >) fitter >) fittest
>) Hot >) hotter >) hottest
>) Red >) redder >) reddest
>) Sad >) sadder >) saddest
>) Thin >) thinner >) thinnest
>) Wet >) wetter >) wettest
(4) If the Positive ends in y and the y is preceded by a consonant,the y is changed into i,when er
and est are added.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
*) Happy *) happier *) happiest
*) Heavy *) heavier *) heaviest
*) Lazy *) lazier *) laziest
*) Merry *) merrier *) merriest
*) Wealthy *) wealthier *) wealthiest
(5) If the y is preceded by a vowel,the y is not changed into i.
*) Gay gayer gayest
*) Grey greyer greyest
76. Most Adjectives of two syllables and all Adjectives of more than two syllables form their
Comparative by adding more and their Superlative by adding most.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
*) Beautiful *) more beautiful *) most beautiful
*) Courageous *) more courageous *) most courageous
*) Intelligent *) more intelligent *) most intelligent
*) Magnificent *) more magnificent *) most magnificent
*) Splendid *) more splendid *) most splendid
*) Mary is more beautiful than Pinky.
*) Rosy is the most beautiful of all the girls.
*) Raman is more intelligent than Ashok.
*) Karan is the most intelligent boy in the class.
77. Some Adjectives form their Comparatives and Superlatives in an irregulart way.
*)Bad,ill,evil *) worse *) worst
*) Fore *) former *) foremost,first
*) Good,well *) better *) best
*) Hind *) hinder *) hindmost
*) Late *) later,latter *) latest,last
*) Little *) less,lesser *) least
*) Much(quantity) *) more *) most
*) Many(number) *) more *) most
*) Nigh *) nigher *) nighest,next
*) Old *) older,elder *) oldest,eldest
78.THERE ARE FIVE WORDS WHICH ARE Adverbs in the Positive ,but Adjectives in the Comparative and Superlative.
*) Far *) farther *) farthest
*) Fore *) further *) furthest
*) In *) inner *) innermost,inmost
*) Out *) outer,utter *) uttermost,utmost
*) Up *) upper *) uppermost,upmost
CORERCT USAGE:--
79. The following Comparatives(borrowed from Latin) that end in -or are followed by to instead of
than.
*) Inferior.-----He is inferior to Bali in intelligence.
*) Superior.----English goods are superior to Japanese goods.
*) Junior.------He is junior to all his friends.
*) Senior.------All his friends are senior to him.
*) Prior.-------This event took place prior to the Second World War.
*) Anterior.---This event is anterior to[earlier than] that.
*) Posterior.--This event is posterior to[later than] that.
80. The following Comparatives that end in -or have no Positive or Superlative Degree.They have
lost their Comparative force,and are now used as Positive Adjectives.
*) Interior,....Exterior,....Major,....Minor,....Ulterior.
>) The interior wall of the house is made of wood.
>) The exterior wall of the house is made of stone.
>) It is a fact of minor importance.
>) I had no ulterior motive in offering her help.
81. The following English Comparatives have lost their Comparative force,and are now used as
Positive Adjectives.They ar not followd by than.
*) Former,...Latter,...Inner,...Outer,...Utter,...Elder.
>) He was followed by a dog and a cat;the former had the black tail and the latter had the white
tail.
>) His is the inner room;mine is the outer.
>) He is an utter fool.
>) Of the two brothers Jack is the elder.
82. Positive Degree---When two persons or things are said to be equal in respect of some quality,we
use the Positive Degree with as..as,or with some equivalent phrase;as,
*) This boy is as industrious as that.
*) This boy is no less industrious than that.
*) That boy is not more industrious than this.
83. Comparative Degree.---The Comparative Adjectives are followed by than when opposition is
implied, and they re followed by of when selection is meant;as,
*) Ashok is wiser than Raman. *) Ashok is wiser of the two.
84. When two persons or things are compared with each other,we must use the word other to
exclude the former;as,
*) Asoka was wiser than any other king.
*) Iron is more useful than any other metal.
We must not say----
*) Asoka was wiser than any king.
*) Iron is more useful than any metal.
because it means the same thing as saying..'Asoka was wiser than Asoka',
..'Iron is more useful than iron',
since,'Asoka is himslef a king' and 'iron is itself a metal'.
85. Superlative Degree,---When one person or thing is said to surpass all other persons or things of
the same kind,we use the Superlative Degree with the...of;as,
*) This boy is the most intelligent of all.
NOTE:--The Superlative Degree can also be expressed by the Comparative,in the following way:--
*) This boy is more intelligent than all other boys.
*) If this mode of expression is used,care must be taken not to leave out the word other;
for there is no sense in saying," This boy is more intelligent than all boys."
86. Double Comparatives and Superlatives must not be used;as,
*) Incorrect.--He is more wiser than Anil.
*) Correct.---He is wiser than Anil.
*) Incorrect.--He is the most strongest man in the village.
*) Corerct.----He is the strongest man in the village.
NOTE:--Lesser,however,is used even by the best authors;as,
'Choose the lesser of the two evils.'
SOME MISCELLANEOUS MISTAKES:--
87. Study carefully the following examples:---
WRONG(w) :- RIGHT(R):--
W) I do not like these kind of books. R) I do not like this kind of books or
[books of this kind].
W) I do not like these sort of people. R) I do not like this sort of people or
[ people of this sort]
W) Iron is more useful than any metal. R) Iron is more useful than any other metal.
W) Rajiv is cleverer than any student. R) Rajiv is cleverer than any other student.
W) Solomon was the wisest of all other R) Solomon was the wisest of all men or
men. [Solomon was wiser than all other men].
W) I have read the two first chapters of R) I have read the first two chapters of this book.
this book.
W) The three first chapters of this novel R) The first three chapters of this novel are
are interesting. interesting.
W) Sanjaya gets a less salary. R) Sanjaya gets a smaller salary.
W) Ranjit is my older brother. R) Ranjit is my elder brother.
W) He is elder than Raman. R) He is older than Raman.
W) No less than forty soldiers R) No fewer than forty soldiers were killed.
were killed.
W) He does not sell fewer than ten R) He does not sell less than ten kilos of sugar.
kilos of sugar.
W) Healh is more preferable than R) Health is preferable to wealth.
wealth.
W) The population of Tokyo is R) The population of Tokyo is greater than that of
greater than any town of India. any town in India.
W) Both boys have not come. R) Neither boy has come.
W) This is the completest book. R) This is a complete book on English Grammer.
on English Grammer.
W) My both eyes are bad. R) Both my eyes are bad.
W) Her all books were stolen. R) All her books were stolen.
Exercise 16. Pick out the Adjectives and name the Degree of Comparison of each:--
>) Suresh is the laziest boy in the class.
>) There is much to be said on both sides.
>) Small people love to talk of great men.
>) Hunger is the best sauce.
>) Solomon was the wisest king that ever lived.
>) Make less noise.
>) No news is good news.
>) That old man had seen happier days.
>) He wastes less time and takes more trouble.
>) Love is the greatest thing in the world.
>) A live ass is better than dead lion.
>) Lead is heavier than any other metal.
>) He thinks he is wiser than his father.
>) I congratulated him on his brilliant success.
>) Forgiveness is nobler than revenge.
>) The Himalayas are the highest mountains in the world.
>) Those poor beggars are weak and hungry.
>) The longest lane has a turning.
>) This is the elder of my two daughters.
>) It was the happiest moment of my life.
Exercise 17. Supply the proper form(Comparative or Superlative) of the Adjective:--
>) Little.----This is the----price I can take.
>) Dear.----Honour is-----to him than life.
>) Pretty.--Her oll is------than yours.
>) Rich.----He is the------man in the town..
>) Hot.-----June is the----month of the year.
>) Clever.-Jack is the----boy in the class.
>) Bad.----My cold is----today than it was yesterday.
>) Idle.----Bali is the-----boy in the class.
>) Tall.----She is the-----of the two.
>) Big.----London is the--city in the world.
>) Good.-Open rebuke is-than secret love.
>) Proud.-It was the-------moment of my life.
>) Intelligent.-Who is the --boy in the class.
>) Good.----The public is the----judge.
>) Useful.---Iron is------than copper.
>) Old.------My uncle is---than my aunt.
>) Mighty.-The pen is---- than sword.
>) Ferocious.---The tiger is the ---- of all animals.
>) Much.--------Some people have-----money than brains.
>) Good.--------Prevention is-----------than cure.
>) Bad.----------Time makes the---------enemies friends.
>) Heavy.-------Lead is-------than any other metal.
>) Little.--------Of the two evils choose the-------.
>) High.--------The-----buildings are found in America.
>) Easy.-------It is to----preach than to practise.
Exercise 18. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences:--
>) Lead is heavier------any other metal.
>) I am senior---------him by tow years.
>) He is inferior------Ashok in intelligence.
>) A wise enemy is better-----a foolish friend.
>) He is the bravest-----all men in the village.
>) This cloth is superior------that.
>) He is junior---- me in service.
>) This happened prior--- the Second World War.
>) He is the wiser------ the two.
>) This pearl is superior-----that.
Exercise 19. Correct the following sentences.:--
>) Let each boy look after their books.
>) Give me either of the four.
>) Those kind of men are not to be trusted.
>) He likes gambling,and all those sort of things.
>) Neither of the three boys have returned.
>) She had seen more happier days.
>) My brother is elder than yours.
>) She is the most wisest women I have ever come across.
>) His horse ran the faster of all.
>) This book is the best of the two.
>) Character is more preferable than gold.
>) Our captian is a better bowler.
>) Rama's intelligence is superior than Mohan's.
>) He is inferior than you in intelligence.
>) He is the eldest boy in the class.
>) He is more better than you think.
>) Satish is my oldest son.
>) The two first chapters of this novel are other dull.
>) Gold is more precious than any metal.
>) Solomon was the wisest of all other men.
>) The climate of Poona is better than Bombay.
>) Shakespeare is greater than any dramatist.
>) Kamala is the eldest of the two sisters.
>) He is stronger than any boy in the class.
>) This is the wisest course of the two.
Exercise 20. Express the meaning of the following sentences by means of the Comparative:--
{ Model: Karan is the strongest of all boys.(Superlative) }
{ Karan is stronger than all other boys.(Comparative) }
>) Lead is the heaviest of all metals.
>) America is the richest of all countries.
>) Kalidas is the greatest of all dramatists.
>) The tiger is the most ferocious of all animals.
>) London is the largest of all cities.
>) Sita is the wisest of all girls.
>) Sakuntala is the best drama in Sanskrit.
>) Jawaharlal Nehru was the most popular of all leaders.
>) Akbar was the wisest of all the Moghul emperors.
>) Napoleon was the bravest of all generals.
CHAPTER-9
THE CORRECT USE OF SOME ADJECTIVES:--
88. Later,latter;... latest,last--->>Later and latest refer to time.
latter and last refer to order or position.
>) This is a latter edition of the book than that.
>) This is the latest news.
>) What is the latest score?
>) What is the latest score?
>) Smith and Jones went together.The former was a painter,the latter and artist.
>) This is the last boy in the class.
>) This is your last chance to win the prize.
89. Elder,older;...eldest,oldest.--->>Elder and eldest are used of persons only;they denote the
the position of one member of a family with refernce to another or others of the
same family.'Elder' is never followed by'than'.
"Older and oldest are used of both persons and things".
>) He is my elder brother.
>) Raman is Ashok's eldest brother.
>) His eldest son is a a doctor.
>) He is older than his sister.
>) He is the oldest man in the village.
>) This is the oldest tree in the grove.
>) This is the oldest temple in the village.
90. Farther,further.---Farther denotes a greater distance between two points.
Further means something additional.
>) Bombay is farther from Delhi than Calcutta is.
>) Let us walk a little farther.
>) I will do this without further delay.
>) He may continue until further orders.
91. Nearet,next.---Nearest denotes nearness in space or distance.
Next denotes order or position.
>) We took the thief to the nearest police-station.
>) This street is the nearest to my house.
>) Mohan lives in the next house.
>) She was sitting next to me.
92. Some ,any.---To express quantity some is used in affirmative sentences.
Any in negtive sentences.
>) There is some ink in the bottle.
>) I gave him some butter.
>) There is not any ink in the bottle.
>) I did not give him any butter.
NOTE:- Any and Some can both be used in interrogative sentences;as,
>) Will you give me some sugar?
>) Will you have some tea?
>) Have you any money?
>) Did you give him any mangoes?
93. Each,every;--either,neither.--> Each means one of two things or one of any number exceeding
two;every is never used in speaking of one of two,but is always
used in speaking of some number exceeding two;as,
>) Every man wishes to be happy.
>) India expects every man to do his duty.
>) The two soldiers had each a gun.
>) Five boys stood in each row.
*) Either has two meanings:(1) one of two,or.....(2) each of two--that is, both.
*) Neither is the negative of either and means neither the one nor the other.
>) You can go by either road[by one road or the other].
>) On either side[both sides] of the road the trees grew.
>) He took neither side [neither this side nor that].
94. Much,many.-->Much means 'a large quantity of'( it is use before uncountable nouns).
Many means ' a large number of(' used before plural countable nouns').
>) There is not much tea in the pot.
>) He has not many friends.
It wil be notices that the examples above are preceded by not..This is because in purely affirmative sentences much and many are generally replaced by such expressions as;
*) Much is replaces by:--
A great deal of : a good deal of : a large quantity of : plenty of : a lot of .
*) Many is replaced by:--
A great many : a good many : a large number of : plenty of : a lot of.
>) He has a lot of(or plenty of) money.[Instead of: He has much money.]
>) We have a lot of( or plenty of) time.[ Instead of: We have much time.]
>) He has a lot of(or a large number of) friends.[ Instead of: He has many friends]
Much and Many may be correctly used in the following cases:---
(a) In negative sentences;as,
>) He hasn't much money.
>) She hasn't many frinds in the town.
(b) In general questions(questions to which the answers is"Yes " or " No").
>) Has he much money?
>) Has she many friends in the town?
NOTE:--Many ''a" used with a Noun and Verb in the Singular,but has in reality a Plural
meaning
Ex:- Many a young man was killed in the battle.
95. Little, a little, the little.---Little means hardly any or not much.It has a negative meaning.
>) There is little milk in the bottle.
>) There is little[practicallyno] hope of his recovery
*) A little denotes some atleast.It has a positive meaning.
>) There is a little hope of his success
>) He has a little money left in the bank.
>) A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
*) The little denotes the small quantity.It has both a positive and negative meaning.
>) He spent the little money he had.
It means:--
>) The money he had was not much.( Negative)
>) He spent all the money he had.( Postive)
NOTE:--Little is used before uncountable nouns.Little ,expect whn preceded by very,is seldom
used in the affirmative.Instead of little we use not much.Instead of:'I have little time',
we usually say:'I haven't much time.'
*) But we say----'I have very little time.'
96. Few ,a few,the few.---Few denotes not many.It has a negative meaning.
>) Few people live to be 100 and fewer still live to be 110.
>) He is a man of few words.
>) Few men can keep a secret.
>) Few people are free from faults.
*) A few denotes some atleast---a small number,however few.It has a positive meaning.
>) He has a few friends in the United States.
>) A few men live a pious life.
*) The few denotes not many.It has both a positive and negative meaning.
>) He gave me the few clothes he had.
>) He lost the few friends he had.
It means:---
>) The friends he had were not many.(Negative)
>) He lost all the friends he had.(Positive)
NOTE:--Few is used before countable nouns.Few ,expect when preceded by very,is seldom in the
affirmative.Instead we use not many.Instead of:'She ate few apples', we usually say:
'She did not eat many apples.' But we say:'Very few people know about this.'
97. Less,fewer.--Less is used with reference to quantity;
Fewer with reference to number.
>) This box weighs no less than forty pounds.
>) I have less money than you.
>) No fewer than forty soldiers were wounded.
>) No fewer than two thousand people were there.
Exercise 21. Fill in the blanks with Some or Any:--
>) I dont't want------tea,thank you.
>) -------Pen will do.
>) Has he procured------bread?
>) Did you see----girls there?
>) I saw----boys playing in the field.
>) I didn't see----apples in the market.
>) There is-----tea in the kitchen,but there isn't----milk.
>) We had----- tea but there wasn't---sugar to put in it.
>) "Will you please lend me--------money?" " I am sorry I haven't----- money".
Exercise 22. Fillin the blanks with Much or Many:--
>) I didn't see-----birds on the tree.
>) She didn't spend-------money on her daughter's marriage.
>) Not-----men were present there.
>) There is not----milk in the jug.
>) There were not----women in the bus.
>) Were there---people present?
>) Has he-----friends in the town?
>) That isn't of-------use.
>) -------people think so.
>) Did you have------difficulty in finding the house?
Exercise 23. Fill in the blanks with Farther or Further:---
>) I have nothing-----to say.
>) Delhi is------ from Bombay than Surat.
>) Until ----- orders,you act as Headmaster of the school.
>) I shall see him without----delay.
>) We cant't go any----without a rest.
>) A ------reason exists.
Exercise 24. Fill in the balnks with Nearest or Next:---
>) The thief eas taken to the------police-station.
>) Mohan's house is-------to mine.
>) My house is-----to the river.
>) She sat-----to me.
>) The -------- railway station is six kilometers from here.
>) My brother lives in the---house.
>) This street is the-----to my house.
Exercise 25. Fill in the blanks with Little, A Little ,or The little:---
>) ----drops os water make a mighty ocean.
>) He has------ sense.
>) He takes----interest in me.
>) He has----money with him.
>) ----strength he had in him proved useless.
>) ------money he had was all stolen.
>) ------tach would have saved the situation.
>) He has----appreciation of good music.
Exercise 26. Fill in the blanks with Few, A few,or The few:---
>) -------villages in India have hospitals.
>) -------books she had were all stolen.
>) He had read------ books.
>) ------friends she has are all sincere.
>) -----men can resist the temptation of god.
>) -------day's rest will do you immense good.
>) -------suggections she gave were all carried out.
>) Can you tell me in------words how the accident occurred?
>) ------words spoken in earnest will convince her.
>) ------ornaments she has are not worth much.
Exercise 27. Fill in the blanks with Latter,later,Latest or Last:----
>) Mohan and Sohan went together. The former was a painter,the------- a mechanic.
>) This is the ------news.
>) The ------chapter of this book is very dull.
>) The-------man in the row was my uncle.
>) He was the -----boy to get the prize.
>) All his friends accepted the----proposal.
>) He came-----than I expected.
>) At a -----date, he was placed in charge of the district.
>) What is the------information?
>) The ------chapters of this book are carelessly written.
Exercise 28. Fill in the blanks with Elder,Older,Eldest,or Oldest:----
>) HE is the-------than his cousin.
>) She is the------woman in our village.
>) This is the------temple in Kashmir.
>) He is my-----brother.
>) He is the------of the two brothers.
>) He is------ than I am.
>) Balu is the-----boy in the class.
>) Ashok is his-------son.
>) Of the two sisters Kamala is the -------.
>) His-------son is an engineer.
Exercise 29. Fill in the blanks with Each,Every,Either ,or Neither:----
>) ---------of the two boys was fined.
>) ---------seat in the hall was occupied.
>) ---------man wants to rise in the world.
>) --------accusation is true.
>) ------ soldier was at his post.
>) --------side won.
>) ---------day has its duties.
>) She visited us------three dayz.
>) Five boys stood in------row.
>) You can take-----side.
>)--------boy must take his turn.
>)--------boy was given a prize.
>) ---------pen will do.
>) --------knife is of any use.
>) On ------occasion I just missed the target.
Exercise 30. Fill in the blanks with Fewer or Less:--
>) There are------mistakes in your composition than in Ashok's.
>) There are-----eggs on this plate than on that.
>) There is------milk in the jug than in the glass.
>) There is------butter on this bread than on that.
>) No---------than forty workers were absent through illness.
>) There is------money in the purse than in the bag.
>)-------size means-------weight
THE SENTENCE - 1
THE SENTENCE(part-1)
PART-1
FUNCTIONAL GRAMMER AND CORRECT USAGE
CHAPTER-1
THE SENTENCE:-
1)When we speak or write we use words.We usually use these words in groups.But any group of words will not necessarily express a complete thought
e.g.:-the hill went up and Jack Jill
Does this group of words make sense?No,it does not.Now arrange these words in their proper order and write:
e.g:-Jack and Jill went up the hill.
This makes complete sense.A group of words that makes complete sense is called a Sentence.
KINDS OF SENTENCE:--
2). Sentences can do four kinds of things.A sentence can---
(1) Make a statement;as,
> The sun rises in the east.(Affirmative)
>The sun does not move round the earth.(Negative)
A sentence that states or declares something is called an Assertive or Declarative Sentence.
(2) Ask a question;as,
>Does the sun rise in the east? > Who does not love his country?
A sentence that asks a question is called an Interrogative sentence
(3)Express some command,request,entreaty or wish;as,
> Shut the door.(command) >Lend me your pen,please(Request)
>Help me,O God(.(Entreaty) >God save the Queen.(Wish)
A sentence that expresses a command ,a request,an entreaty or a desire is called
an Imperative Sentence.
(4)Express some strong or sudden feeling;as,
How hot it is! What a foolish boy you are!
A sentence that expresses some strong or sudden feeling is called an Exclamatory Sentence.
NOTE---From the above it is clear that:-
(1) Every sentence begings with a Capital letter.
(2) A Full Stop(.) is placed at the end of every Declarative or Imperative sentence.
(3) A Question Mark(?) is placed at the end of every Interrogative Sentence.
(4) An Exclamation Mark(!) is placed at the end of every Exclamatory sentence.
Exercise 1.Write out the following sentences so that they make sense:-
1) elephant,an ,the,animal,largest is---------?
2) a,noise,make,do,not ------ ?
3) sweet,how,rose,this ,smells ------?
4) a,year,months,how,many,are,in,there ------?
5) and,milk,butter,cheese,are,made
6) girl,what,are,you,a ,clever --------?
7) flower,from,to,flower,fly,bees ------?
8) blames,a,workman,bad,his,tools ------?
9) wife,children,and,he,his,care,takes,of ------?
10) his,country,love,does,who,not ------?
Exercise2. Say whether each of the following sentences is ASSERTIVE,....IMPERATIVE,...INTERROGATIVE OR EXCLAMATORY:-
1) keep off the grass ----------?
2) what nonsense you talk! ----------?
3) God save our Queen. ----------?
4) Let us keep our promise. -----------?
5) Have you lost your book? ----------?
6) How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank! ?
7) What a piece of work is man! ------------?
8) Honesty is the best policy. ------------? .
9) Do not depend too much on the help of others ---?
10) The earth goes round the sun. -----------?
11)Mind your own business. -----------?
12)How old is your elder sister? -----------?
13)What a beautiful night it is! -----------?
14)May God bless you with health. -----------?
15)What is the time by your watch -----------?
16)Lend me your pen,please. -----------?
17)What a fool you are! -----------?
19)Animals do not laugh.------------?
20)No news is good news.-------------?
CHAPTER-2
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
3. Every sentence consists of two parts,expressed or understood:--
(1) The part which names the person or thing we speak about.
This part of the sentence is called the SUBJECT.
(2) What is said of the person or thing denoted by the subject.
This part of the sentence is called the PREDICATE.
4. Notice how these sentences are divided into subject and predicate:---
SUBJECT PREDICATE
1 We have done our duty
2 Birds fly in the air
3 A bad workman blames his tools
4 The rich are not always happy
5 The early bird cathes the worm.
5.The subject does not always come at the beginning of the sentence:-
1) How badly you sing! 3) Across the path lay a frozen snake.
2) Down dropped the breeze. 4) Sweet are the uses of adversity.
SUBJECT PREDICATE
You sing how badly
The breeze dropped down
A frozen snake lay across the path
The uses of adversity are sweet
6. In Imperative sentences the Subject is generally left out;as,
Do this. [Here the Subject You is understood.]
Thank you.[Here theSubject I is understood.]
Exercise 3.Divide the following sentences into SUBJECT and PREDICATE:-
1) A barking sound the shepherd hears.
2) Don't make a noise.
3) The country is lovely in autumn.
4) The boy stood on the burning deck.
5) The stars are shining brightly.
6) The sun went down.
7)Work hard.
8) Darkness came quickly on.
9) Down fell the mango.
10) Strange are the ways of God.
11) Stone walls do not a prison make.
12) No man can serve two masters.
13) The singing of the birds delights us.
14)Swimming is the best kind of exercise.
15)Delhi,the capital of India,stands on the Jumna.
EXERCISE 4. Add suitable Predicates to the following Subjects:-
1.The earth---------------------?
2. The stars--------------------?
3.A good boy-------------------?
4.A stationar-------------------?
5.A butcher---------------------?
6.Our class--------------------?
7.Our headmaster------------?
8.The sun-----------------------?
9.The Queen of England----?
10.Our Prime Minister-------?
EXERCISE 5.Add suitable Subjects to the following Predicates:-
1) -----------consists of thirty pupils.
2)------------is always likes by his teachers.
3)-----------opened the Exhibition.
4)-----------does not move round the earth.
5)-----------revolves round the sun.
6)-----------are shining brightly in the sky.
7)-----------lives in Delhi.
8)----------make one rupee.
9)----------sells meat.
10)--------is very strict.
CHAPTER-3
THE PHRASE AND THE CLAUSE:-
7.Examine the groups of words in italics in the following sentences:-
1. The sun sets in the west.
2. I must start in a short time.
3.I shot an arrow into the air.
4.It lies beneath my window.
>)These groups of words make sense,but not complete sense.They have no Subject or Predicate of their own.Such groups of words are called PHRASES.
>)A group of words that makes sense,but not complete sense,is called a PHRASE.
8.Examine the groups of words in italics in the following sentences:-
1.God helps those who help themselves.
2.This is the beggar whom we saw yesterday.
3.I know what she wants.
Here (who help themselves) is a sentence,because it has a subject(who) and a Predicate(help themselves).Similarly ,(whom we saw yesterday) is a sentence,having a Subject(we) and a Predicate(saw yesterday).What she wants is also a sentence,because is has a Subject(she) and a Predicate(wants).Such groups of words are called CLAUSES.
A group of words which forms part of a larger sentence,and contains a subject and a predicate,is called a CLAUSE.
Exercise 6.Say whether the groups of words in italics in the following sentences are phrases or clauses:-
1).This is the house where he lived.---?
2).Make hay while the sun shines.---?
3).Strike the iron while it is hot.----?
4).Show me how to do it.---?
5).It was a scene of great beauty.---?
6).He did it for my sake.---?
7).He worked for three hours.---?
8).The snow has fallen without a sound.
9).People who are selfish are disliked by all.--?
10).Her virtue won her respect.--?
CHAPTER-4
PARTS OF SPEECH:--
9.Words are classified according to the particular work they do in a sentence.
The particular work which a word does is called its function.
The Parts OF Speech are the classes into which words are divided according to their function in a sentence.
10.There are eight parts of speech:-
(1).Noun..A Noun is the name of a person,placeor thing.
>)Asoka was a noble king. >)The sun rises in the east.
>)Delhi is on the jumna. >)Her virtue won her honour.
NOTE:---The words thing means,
(1) all objects that we can see,hear,smell,touch ,or taste;
(2) something that we can think of.
(2).PRONOUN..A Pronoun is a word used instead of a Noun.
>)As Raman is ill,he will not come to school.
>)When the tiger saw the man,it sprang upon him.
(3).ADJECTIVE..An Adjective is a word used to qualify(that is,to add something to the meaning of)a Noun.
>)The rose is a beautiful flower.
>)Ashok is a brave boy.
>)Twenty soldiers were killed.
(4).VERB..A Verb is a word used for saying something about a person ,place,or thing.
>)The poor girl cried bitterly.
>)Bombay is a big city.
>)Virtue is its own reward.
(5).ADVERB..An adverb is a word which qualifies a Verb.Adjective or another Adverb.
>)He runs quickly.
>)This painting is very beautiful.
>)The sun was shining so brightly.
(6).PREPOSITION..A Preposition is a word used with a Noun or Pronoun to show its relation to some other words in the sentence.
>)The cat is Lying on the table.
>)The king then sat under a tree.
>)Sita is fond of music.
(7).CONJUCTION..A Conjuction is a word used to join together words,phrases or sentences.
>)Two and two makes four.(words)
>)He was a man of courage but of no reputataion.(Phrases)
>)She is fond of music,but hates dancing.(Sentences)
(8).INTERJECTION..An Interjection is an exclamatory word,denoting some sudden feeling.
>) Hurrah!we have won the match.
>) Hark!the bugles call.
>) Alas!poor Kamala is dead.
11.A word must be classified accordng to its function in the particular sentence in which it is used,and not according to its appearance.The same word does not always belong to the same Part of Speech;as it changes its function,so it changes its classification.
1).He threw a stone at her. (Noun)
2).Stone walls do not a prison make.(Adjective)
3).Stone him to death.(Verb)
Exercise 7.Name the part of speech of each italicized word in the followin sentences:--
1). We had a severe winter ten years ago.-----?
2). They always winter in the south.-----?
3). He will come to us during the winter holidayz.
4). Rest a while.---?
5). Don't while away your time in playing indoor games.
6). Make hay while the sun shines.---?
7). Still waters run deep.---?
8). He still blames me.---?
9). He stole out of the house in the still of night.
10). We shall go out when the wind and the storm are still.
11). Water the plants.
12). He is in hot water.---?
13). He is blind in one eye.---?
14). They eye her with suspicion.---?
CHAPTER-5
THE NOUN:THE KINDS OF NOUNS:--
12.A Noun is the name of a person ,place,or
thing;as,Arsalan,Delhi,Cat,table,steel,cleverness,goodness,beauty.
NOTE:--In ordinary language the word thing denotes that which has no life,but here the word thing means any object or abstract idea we can think about,whether it has a real existence or not.
KINDS OF NOUNS
13.Nouns are of five different kinds:---
1).Concrete {Proper,Common,Collective,Material}
2).Abstract
14.Study the following sentences:---
>) Akbar was a wise king.
>) Rama is a clever boy.
>) Bombay is a big city.
*).Here Akbar is the name of a particular king,while the Noun king can be applied to all kings.
*).Similarly,Rama is the name of a particular boy,while boy can be applied to all boys.
*).Bombay, is the name of a particular city,while city can be applied to all cities.
So Akbar,Rama,Bombay which refer to a particular person or place are called Proper Nouns.
A Proper Noun is the name of a particular person or place.
[A Proper Noun is always written with a Capital Letter.]
King,boy,city which denotes no one person or thing in particular,but are common to any and every person or thing of the same kind,are called Common Nouns.
A Common Noun is a name which is common to any and every person or thing of the same kind.
NOTE:--A Proper Noun may be used as a Common Noun.
1). He is a Burke(=the greatest orator) of his age.
2). He is the shakespeare(=the greatest dramatist) of India.
15. A Collective Noun denotes a number of persons or things grouped together as one complete whole;as,
e.g;Crowd,..flock,..fleet,..herd,..committee,..family,...nation,...team,..
.parliament,...mob,..regiment,...assembly.
*)The crowd was very big. A crowd=a collection of people.
*)The English army won the day. A flock=a collection of sheep.
*)The jury found him guilty. A fleet=a collection of ships.
*)A fleet of fifty ships left the harbour.
16. A distinction is generally made between a Collective Nouns and a Noun of Multitude.
(1). A Collective Noun denotes one individual whole;and hence the Verb is singular;as,
e.g;..The Committee consists of twelve members.
(2). A Noun of Multitude denotes the individuals of the group;and hence the Verb is plural,although the Noun is singular.
e.g;..The Committee (=the members composing the Committee) are quarrelling among themselves.
17.A Noun of Material denotes the matter or substance of which things are made;as.gold,silver,iron,glass,cotton,wool,clay,steel,stone.
eg;..>) Ornaments are made of silver and gold.
>) Bottles are made of glass.
>) Clothes are made of cotton,wool, and silk.
18.An Abstract Noun is the name of some quality ,state or action considered(or imagined) to be apart from the thing to which it belongs.
*)Quality:---Cleverness,goodness,kindsness,wisdom.
*)State:---Poverty,youth,manhood,childhood,boyhood,death,sickness,slavery.
*)Action:--Laughter,theft,movement,flight,revenge.
NOTE:--A Concrete Noun denotes a thing which can be perceived by the senses.It can be seen ,touched,heard,smelt, or tasted; and has also a separate existence.
*)An Abstract Noun relates to something which cannot actually be perceived by the senses,and which is considered apart from the object to which it belongs.
e.g;..,we know iron is hard,..stone is hard,..marble is hard
They all possess the quality of hardness.We can think of this quality,i.e., hardness apart from iron,stone or marble.Hence hardness is an Abstract Noun;while iron,stone, and marble are Concrete Nouns.
Exercise 8:-.Point out the Nouns in the following sentences ,and say whether they are Proper,Common,Collective,Material or Abstract:--
1).A black-board is made of wood.
2).Poverty is a curse.
3).Sweet are the uses of adversity.
4).A gang of robbers entered the city at night.
5).The army was defeated.
6).Delhi is the capital of India.
7).The committee has approved of his appointment.
8).Engines are made of iron.
9).Work is worship.
10).Gold and silver have I noun.
11).The jury were divided in their opinions.
12).London is the capital of England.
13).Calcutta stands on the Hooghly.
14).Health is wealth.
15).The crew was a fine one.
16).Parliament will meet next month.
17).I saw a flock of sheep in the field.
18).Patience and preseverance can overcome mountains.
19).Our school team won the match.
20).Our class consists of twenty boys and ten girls.
21).Cleanliness is next to godliness.
CHAPTER-6
THE NOUN:GENDER:-
19. There are four Genders in English:--
(1) .The names of male animals or persons are said to be of the MASCULINE GENDER;as,man,boy,lion,hero,king,father.
(2).The names of female animals or persons are said to be of the FEMININE GENDER; as,women,girl,lioness,heroine,queen,mother.
(3).The names of things which indicate either the masculine or the feminine are said to be of the COMMON GENDER ;as,baby,child,cousin,servant,parent,friend,pupil,person,student,orphan,monarch,relation,teacher,deer,sheep,calf,neighbour.
(4).The names of things that are neither male nor female(i.e.,things without life) are said to be of Neuter Gender;as,...book,lable,chair,tree,pen,stone.
[Neuter means neither,i.e,. neither male nor female.]
WAYS OF FORMING THE FEMININE OF NOUNS
20.There are three ways of forming the Feminine of Nouns:--
1.By a change of word
*)Masculine :- *)Feminine:-
>Bachelor >maid,spinster
>Boar >sow
>Boy >girl
>Brother >sister
>Buck >doe
>Bull(or ox) >cow
>Bullock >heifer
>Cock >hen
>Colt >filly
>Dog >bitch
>Drake >duck
>Drone >bee
>Earl >countess
>Father >mother
>Gander >goose
>Gentleman >lady
>Hart >roe
>Horse >mare
>Husband >wife
>King >queen
>Lord >lady
>Man >woman
>Monk(or friar) >nun
>Nephew >niece
>Papa >mamma
>Ram >ewe
>Sir >madam
>Son >daughter
>Stag >hind
>Swain >nymph
>Uncle >aunt
>Wizard >witch
2.By Adding -ess to the Masculine
(1) The following Feminines are formed by simply adding -ess to the Masculine:--
*)Masculine *)Feminine
>Author >authoress
>Baron >baroness
>Count >countess
>Giant >giantess
>Heir >heiress
>Host >hostess
>Jew >jewess
>Lion >lioness
>Manager >manageress
>Mayor >mayoress
>Patron >patroness
>Peer >peeress
>Poet >poetress
>Priest >priestess
>Prophet >prophetess
>Shepherd >shepherdess
>Steward >stewardess
>Viscount >viscountess
(2)The followng Feminines are formed by adding -ess to the Masculine,after omitting the vowel of the last syllable of the Masculine:--
*)Masculine *)Feminine
>Actor >actress
>Ambassador >ambassadress
>Benefactor >benefactress
>Conductor >conductress
>Emperor >empress
>Enchanter >enchantress
>Founder >foundress
>Governer >governess
>Hunter >huntress
>Inspector >inspectress
>Instructor >instructress
>Negro >negress
>Prince >princess
>Songster >songstress
>Sorcerer >sorceress
>Tempter >temptress
>Tiger >tigeress
>Traitor >traitress
>Waiter >waitress
(3) By adding -ess to the Masculine in a less regular way:--
*)Masculine *)Feminine
>Abbot >abbess
>Duke >duchess
>God >goddess
>Lad >lass
>Master(boy) >miss(girl)
>Mr >Mrs
>Marquis >marchioness
>Schoolmaster >schoolmistress
3.By placing a word before or after
*)Masculine *)Feminine
>Beggar-man >beggar-woman
>Bull-calf >cow-calf
>Cock-sparrow >hen-sparrow
>He-goat >she-goat
>Grandfather >grandmother
>Greatuncle >greataunt
>Landlord >landlady
>Man-servant >maid-servant
>Milkman >milkmaid
>Merman >mermaid
>Peacock >peahen
>Washerman >washerwoman
21.Study the following Masculines and Feminines:--
*)Masculine *)Feminine
>Administrator >Administratrix
>Bridegroom >bride
>Czar >czarina
>Executor >executrix
>Fox >vixen
>Hero >heroine
>Prosecutor >prosecutrix
>Signor >signora
>Sultan >sultana
>Testator >testatrix
>Viceroy >vicereine
>Widower >widow
22.collective Nouns,even when they denote living beings,are considered to be of the Neuter Gender;as,
*) The jury has given its verdict.
*) The committee has changed its opinion.
23.Animals and young children may be either distinguished by their sex or regarded as of neither sex and spoken of in the Neuter Gender.When speaking of a very young child we may say---
*) The child knows his(or her)own mind. Or
*) The child knows its own mind.
But it is ridiculous to say---
*)Look at John.How merrily it is playing!
We must say---
*)Look at John.How merrily he is playing!
24.Gender of Personified Objects.Sometimes objects without life are spoken of as if they were persons.They are regarded as males or females.
(1) Things remarkable for strength,firmness,or energy are regarded as males;as,the Sun,Time,Death,Winter,Summer,Thunder,Ocean.
*) Then the sun shot his bright rays.
*) Death always knows his victim.
(2) Things remarkable for beauty,gracefulness,gentleness are regarded as females;as,the Moon,Earth,Nature,Spring,Hope,Virtue,Charity,Mercy,Faith,Peace.
*)The moon shed her light on the bank.
*)Spring has her own charms and delights.
*)Love Virtue;she slone is free.
*)Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war.
NOTE:--A ship is always spoken of as she;as,
*) The ship fought her way through the stormy waves.
Exercise 9.Rewrite the following sentences changing the Gender of the Nouns and making other necessary changes:--
1. His mother took him to the Zoo where he had a look at the lions,tigers,stags,rams, and the peacocks.
2. The negro accompanied by his wife and daughters came to the king's palace.
3. The poet,the priest, and the Prophet are always inspired by a high deal.
4. The count married a rich heiress, a lass of fifteen, who was a jewess by birth.
5. The Duke called the hunter to his presence and asked him how he had caught the tiger.
6. The ways of the temper,the enchanter,the wizard, and the sorcerer are the same.
7. The prince declared that author had been his sole benefactor.
8. The abbot declared that the waiter was a traitor and murderer.
9. The Mayor was the patron of art and learning.
10. This shepherd once acted as a host to the Marquis.
11. His uncle is a widower and his brother is a bachelor.
12. The landlady accompanied by her maidservants went to the temple to pray to the goddess for her husband's speedy return.
13. The conductor led the king his wife to the emperor.
14. When the queen saw her father she alighted from her horse and knelt before him.
15. The monk played the part of the hero.
CHAPTER-7
THE NOUN:NUMBER
25). There are two numbers in English---(1) the Singular,and(2) the Plural.
*). A Noun that denotes one person or thing is said to be in the Singular Number;as,
Man,boy,girl,cow,knife,table,book,chair.
*). A Noun that denotes more than one person or thing is said to be in the Plural Number;as,
Men,boys,girls,cows,knives,tables,books,chairs.
WAYS OF FORMING THE PLURAL OF NOUNS:--
26). The Plural of Nouns is fored according to the following rules:--
(1) The Plural of Nouns is generally formed by adding -s to the Singular;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Blow >) blows
>) Garden >) gardens
>) Hand >) hands
>) House >) houses
>) Map >) maps
>) Star >) stars
>) Stick >) sticks
>) Stone >) stones
(2). Nouns ending in ch(soft),s,sh,x or z form the Plural by adding -es to the Singular;as,
*)Singular *) Plural
>) Bench >) benches
>) Box >) boxes
>) Brush >) brushes
>) Dish >) dishes
>) Gas >) gases
>) Glass >) glasses
>) Loss >) losses
>) Quiz >) quizzes
>) Tax >) taxes
>) Watch >) watches
(3) Nouns ending in y,preceded by a consonant,form the Plural by changing y into ies;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Army >) armies
>) Baby >) babies
>) City >) cities
>) Duty >) duties
>) Fly >) flies
>) Lady >) ladies
>) Pony >) ponies
>) Story >) stories
But if the final y is preceded by a vowel(as in ay,ey,or oy), the PLural is formed by adding -s to the Singular;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Chimney >) chimneys
>) Day >) days
>) Journey >) journeys
>) key >) keys
>) Pay >) pays
>) Play >) plays
>) Ray >) rays
>) Storey >) storeys
>) Toy >) toys
>) Valley >) valleys
NOTE:--Nouns ending in quy form Plural in ies;as,soliloquy,soliloquies.
(4) Nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant,generally form the Plural by adding -es to the Singular ;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Buffalo >) buffaloes
>) Calico >) calicoes
>) Cargo >) cargoes
>) Echo >) echoes
>) Hero >) heroes
>) Mango >) mangoes
>) Mosquito >) mosquitoes
>) Motto >) mottoes
>) Negro >) negroes
>) Potato >) potatoes
>) Torpedo >) torpedoes
>) Volcano >) volcanoes
But all words ending in oo,io,eo, or yo, and some words ending in o preceded by a consonant form the Plural by adding -s to the Singular;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Bamboo >) bamboos
>) Cameo >) cameos
>) Canto >) cantos
>) Cuckoo >) cuckoos
>) Curio >) curios
>) Dynamo >) dynamos
>) Embryo >) embryos
>) Photo >) photos
>) Piano >) pianos
>) Portfolio >) portfolios
>) Ratio >) ratios
>) Quarto >) quartos
>) Stereo >) stereos
>) Studio >) studios
NOTE:--But grotto,halo and memento have two plurals;grottos,grotteos;halos,haloes;mementos,mementoes.
(5) Nouns ending in f or fe form the Plural by changing f or fe into ves;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Calf >) calves
>) Elf >) elves
>) Half >) halves
>) Knife >) knives
>) Leaf >) leaves
>) Life >) lives
>) Loaf >) loaves
>) Sheaf >) sheaves
>) Shelf >) shelves
>) Thief >) thieves
>) Wife >) wives
>) Wolf >) wolves
But Nouns ending in ff,eef,oof,ief, and rf, and some Nouns ending in f form the PLural by adding -s to the Singular;as,
*)Singular *)Plural
>) Belief >) beliefs
>) Chief >) chiefs
>) Cliff >) cliffs
>) Dwarf >) dwarfs
>) Grief >) griefs
>) Gulf >) gulfs
>) Handkerchief >) handkerchiefs
>) Hoof >) hoofs
>) Mischief >) mischiefs
>) Proof >)proofs
>)Puff >) puffs
>) Reef >) reefs
>) Roof >) roofs
>) Scarf >) scarfs
>) Staff >) staffs
>) Stuff >) stuffs
>) Turf >) turfs
>) Wharf >) wharfs
NOTE:-(1) There are at least three Nouns ending in fe which form the Plural by simply adding -s;as,
safe--safes; strife--strifes; fife--fifes.
(2) Some take both forms;as,
Hoof--hoofs, hooves; scarf--scarfs,scarves; staff--staffs,staves; wharf--wharfs,wharves.
(3) Thief makes thieves.
27. The following Nouns form their Plural by a change of the inside vowel;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Dormouse >) dormice
>) Foot >) feet
>) Goose >) geese
>) Louse >) lice
>) Man >) men
>) Mouse >) mice
>) Tooth >) teeth
>) Woman >) women
28. A few Nouns make Plurals as in Old English.by adding -n or -ne to the Singular and sometimes altering the vowels;as,
Ox,oxen;{child,children;}{cow,kine(more commonly cows');}{ brother,brethren(more commonly 'brothers').}
29. A Compound Noun generally forms its Plural by adding -s to the principal word;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Foot-man >) foot-men
>) Hanger-on >) hangers-on
>) Looker-on >) lookers-on
>) Man-of-war >) men-of-war
>) passer-by >) passers-by
>) Son-in-law >) sons-in-law
>) Step-son >) step-sons
>) Washer-man >) washer-men
>) Coat-of-mail >) coats-of-mail
>) Commander-in-chief >) commanders-in-chief
>) Court-martial >) court-martial
>) Daughter-in-law >) daughters-in-law
>) Father-in-law >) fathers-in-law
>) Knight-errant >) knights-errant
>) Major-general >) major-generals
>) Maid-servant >) maid-servants
>) Mother-in-law >)mothers-in-law
>) Spend-thrift >) spend-thrifts
>) Step-daughter >) step-daughters
*)There are four Compound Nouns which take a double Plural;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Knight-templar >) Knights-Templars
>) Lord-justice >) lords-justices
>) Man-servant >) men-servants
>) Woman-servant >) women-servants
NOTE:--(1) We say mouthfuls,spoonfuls,handfuls because they are regarded as one word.
(2) Compound Nouns ending in man form their Plurals by changing the vowel;as,
Kinsman,kinsmen; nobleman,noblemen; Dutchman,Dutchmen;
Frenchman,Frenchmen; Englishman,Englishmen; statesman,statesmen.
But the Plurals of Northman(Northmans), Brahman(Brahmans), Musalman(Musalmans), Turcoman(Turcomans).
30. Some foreign words have foreign Plurals;as,
(1)Latin
*) Singular *) Plurals
>) Addendum >) addenda
>) Alumnus >) alumni
>) Apparatus >) apparatuses
>) Appendix >) {appendices,appendixes}
>) Curriculum >) {curricula,curriculums}
>) Datum >) data
>) Dictum >) {dicta,dictums}
>) Erratum >) errata
>) Focus >) foci(focuses)
>) Formula >) {formulae,formulas}
>) Genius >) {geniuses(genii)}
>) Index >) {indices,indexes}
>) Medium >) {mediums,media}
>) Memorandum >) { memoranda,memorandums}
>) Radius >) radii
>) Stratum >) strata
>) Syllabus >) {syllabi,syllabuses}
>) Terminus >) {termini,terminuses}
(2) Greek.
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Analysis >) analyses
>) Axis >) axes
>) Basis >) bases
>) Crises >) crises
>) Criterion >) criteria
>) Hypothesis >)hypotheses
>) Oasis >) oases
>) Parenthesis >) parentheses
>) Phenomenon >) phenomena
>) Thesis >) theses
(3) Italian,French and Hebrew.
*) Singular *) Plural
> Bandit >) {banditti,bandits}
>) Bureau >) {bureaux,bureaus}
>) Cherub >) {cherubim,cherubs}
>) Madam >) {mesdames}
>) Monsieur >) messieurs
>) Seraph >){seraphim,seraphs}
31. Some Nouns have the same form in the Plural as in the Singular;as, deer,sheep,swine,cod,trout,salmon.
CORRECT USAGE:--
32.Several Nouns used in counting ,when preceded by Numerals, are unaltered in the Plural;as,score,dozen,gross,hundred,million,brace,pair,couple,stone,hundredweight.
>). His father has reached the age of four score and ten
>). This watch cost me three hundred rupees.
>). I bought two dozen mangoes.
>). Twenty hundredweight make one ton.
NOTE:-Gross has no plural form,and is always followed by of.We say--a gross of pins,two gross of pins.
33.Some Nouns are found only in the Plural.
(1). Names of pairs of tings which are usually inseperable;as,pincers,tongs,scissors,snuffers,trousers,braces,spectacles,bellows.[Spectacle is used in the Singular in the sense of a 'sight']
(2). Names of things not generally thought of singly;as,entrails,bowels,victuals,vitals,eatables,movables,valuables.
(3). Names of games;as,billiards,draughts.
(4). Names of diseases;as,measles,mumps.
(5). Some miscellaneous Nouns;as,thanks,nupitals,wages,tidings,proceeds(of sale),assets,environs,obsequies,premises(in the sense of houses,lands,etc).
34. Some Nouns originally Singular are now generally used in the Plural;as,
>)Alms--She gave alms to the blind beggar,and for these he thanked her.
>)Eves--The eves are not yet finished.
>)Riches-Riches have wings.
35.The following Nouns are genarlly used in the Singular:--
>) Mathematics--Mathematics is a difficult subject.
>) News---The news is too good to be true.
>) Innings---The first innings is not yet over.
>) Physics---Physics is his favourite study.
>) Politics---Politics is not meant for young boys
>) Gallows---A gallows has been erected.
"Means" is used either as Singular or Plural.But when it means"wealth",it is always Plural;as,
>) This is simply a means to an end.
>) By these means he passed the examination.
>) His means are small.
36. Some Collective Nouns,though Singular in form,are always treated as Plural;as,
>) Cattle.-- These cattle belong to Mr Smith.
>) People.-- Many people [persons] were in the streets.
>) Vermin.--Vermin have destroyed the crops.
>) Poultry.--These poultry are mine.
>) Gentry.-- The gentry were present there.
NOTE:--When people is used in the sense of "nation",the Plural is peoples;as,
>) The English are a brave people.(Singular)
>) Asia is inhabited by many peoples.(Plural)
37. The following words are generally used only in the Singular form:--
>) Abuse.---He showered abuse(bad language) on her for no fault.
>) Alphabet.--He has learnt the alphabet.
>) Information.--I shall give you the information you need.
>) Furniture---The whole furniture was spoilt by rain.
>) Offspring---These four sons are my offspring.
>) Poetry---Milton wrote very good poetry(poems).
>) Scenery--The scenery of Kashmir is charming.
38. Note the following Plurals:
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Mr >) Messrs
>) Mr >) { Messrs White,or the Mr Whites}
>) Mrs >) Mesdames
>) Miss Brown >) {Misses Brown,or the Miss Browns}
39. The Plural of letters,figures, and symbols is formed by adding an apostrophe and s;as,
>) Mark your p's and q's.
>) Add two 5's and three 4's.
>) Four B.A's and three M.A's applied for the post.
40. Abstract Nouns have strictly no Plural; as, hope,love,kindness, When such words are used in the Plural they become Common Nouns;as,
>) Kindnesses=acts of kindness.
>) Generosities=acts of generosity.
*) Material Nouns also are not used in the Plural;as,copper,tin,stone,iron. When used in the Plural they become Common Nouns and are used in a different sense;as,
>) Coppers=copper coins.
>) Tins=boxes or cans made of tin.
>) Stones=small pieces of stone.
>) Irons= fetters or different kinds of iron.
41.Some Nouns have two forms for the Plural ,with differnt meanings:--
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Brother { brothers,sons of same father.
{ brethren,members of the same society.
>) Appendix { appendixes,small outgrowth on the surface of an organ.
{ appendices,something added,especially at the end of a book.
>) Cloth { cloths,kinds or pieces of cloth.
{ clothes,garments for wear.
>) Die { dies,stamps for coining.
{ dice,small cubes used in gaming.
>) Fish { fish,taken collectively.
{ fishes,taken separately.
>) Genius { geniuses,men of great genius or talent.
{ genii,imaginary spirits of the air.
>) Index { indexes, tables of contents to books.
{ indices,sings used in algebra
>) Penny { pennies,denotes the number of coins;as,six pennies.
{ pence, a sum of money,viewed as a whole;as,ten pence.
>) Shot { shot,the small balls fired from a gun;as,Have you any shot left.
{ shots, the separate acts of shooting;as, He had five shots.
>) Staff {staffs,bodies of skilled officers.
{ staves,sticks or poles.
42. Some Nouns have one meaning in the Singular ,and two in the Plural:_-
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Colour:(colour). * Colours{ 1. Kinds of colour.
{ 2.The flag of a regiment.
>) Custom:(usual practice). Customs{ 1.Usual practices.
{ 2. Duty levied upon imports from foreign countries.
>) Effect:(result). Effects { 1. Results
{ 2.Property
>) Letter{ 1. Of alphabet. Letters { 1.Letters of the alphabet.
{ 2.A letter written { 2. Letters written to others.
to someone. { 3. Literature.
>) Manner:(method). Manners{ 1. Methods
{ 2. Corerct behaviour.
>) Moral:( a moral lesson). Morals{ 1. Moral lessons.
{ 2. Conduct.
>) Number:(a quantity). Numbers { 1. Quantities.
{ 2. Verses.
>) Pain :(suffering). Pains{ 1. Sufferings.
{ 2. Care,exertion;as, No pains,no gains.
>) Part:(portion). Parts { 1. Portions.
{ 2. Abilities.
>) Premise:{ a statement or Premises{ 1. Propositions.
proposition). { 2. Surroundings to a house.
>) Quarter: (a fourth part). Quarters { 1. Fourth parts.
{ 2. Lodgings.
>) Spectacle:( a sight). Spectacles{ 1. Sights
{ 2. Eye-glasses.
43. Some Nouns have one meaning in the Singular and another in the Plural:---
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Advice:(counsel). >) Advices:(information).
>) Air:(atmosphere). >) Airs:(affected manners).
>) Compass:{ 1. extent. >) Compasses:{ an instrument for measuring}
{ 2. mariner's
compass
>) Copper:(a metal). >) Coppers:(coins made of copper).
>) Force:(strength or energy). >) Forces:( army).
>) Good: (benefit). >) Goods:( property).
>) Iron: ( a metal). >) Irons:(fetters made of iron).
>) Physic: ( medicine). >) Physics:( natural science).
>) Respect: ( regard). >) Respects:( compliments).
>) Return:( coming back). >) Returns:( statistics).
Exercise 10. Write out the following sentences,changing the Nouns in brackets into the Plural Number:--
>) The (negro) were not fond of(tomato);they preferred(potato).
>) The (lady) were stung by (mosquito).
>) The (hero) rode on their(pony).
>) They paid (tax) on the ( cargo).
>) The (wolf) attacked the(calf) but were driven by a group of(dwarf).
>) The (cry) of the(wolf) made(echo) among the(reef).
>) The (thief) hid themselves among the(bamboo).
>) The (Volcano) throw out molten lava.
>) The(actress) played the (piano).
>) Most(child) as well as (man) and (woman) ,and even(baby),have bad (tooth).
>) I saw a group of (mouse) chasing the farmers (wife) who cut off their (tail) and (nose) and blinded their (eye) with their ( knife).
>) These (box) are full of (watch).
Exercise 11. Correct the following sentences:---
>) The sceneries of Kashmir are very charming.
>) The negroes have dirty hairs.
>) The news are good.
>) That house is built of stones.
>) Do you like these poetries?
>) Five hundreds men were present there.
>) I bought two dozens oranges.
>) The solitary Reaper is a nice poetry.
>) We must take pity on poor blinds.
>) Poors are always with us.
>) Politics are not meant for young boys.
>) I do not were trouser.
>) Father-in-lawas loves their son-in-laws.
>) His cattles are grazing in the fields.
>) Please cut it with a scissors.
>) Physics are an interesting subject.
>) I saw four deers in the field.
>) Such phenomenon are seen on the Red Sea
>) This car cost me forty thousands rupees.
>) What are the criterions of success in life?
Exercise 12. Write out the following sentences choosing the correct form of the Verbs given in brackets:----
>) No news (is,are) good news.
>) Evil(was,were) the news we heard.
>) The tiding(is,are) false.
>) The odds (is,are) against us.
>) The gallows(has,have) just been erected.
>) Mathematics(is,are) his favourite study.
>) Riches(have,has) wings.
>) Politics(are,is) an inetersting subject.
>) There (is,are) few gentry in this town.
>) Alms(was.were) given to the poor.
>) Thanks(is,are) due to him.
>) Mankind(does,do) not know this.
>) My spectacles (is,are) missing.
>) Measles (is,are) an infectious disease.
>) The second innings(is,are) not yet over.
CHAPTER-8
THE NOUN:THE CASE
44. Read the following sentences:---
(1). The king killed the lion.
(2). He bought a silver watch.
(3).The lion was killed by the king.
*)In sentence 1. ,the Noun king is the Subject of the verb killed.
*)In sentence 2..the Pronoun he is the Subject of the verb bought.
*)In sentence 3.,the Noun lion is the Subject of the Verb was killed.
The Nouns king,lion and the Pronoun he which form the Subject of a Verb are said to be in the Nominative Case.
Any Noun(or Pronoun) that is the Subject of a Verb is said to be in the Nominative Case.
NOTE:--We can always find the Nominative in a sentence by putting Who? or What? before the Verb,Who killed the lion? The king.Who bought a silver watch? He . What was killed by the king? The lion.
45. Read the following sentences:--
(1) The policeman caught the thief.
(2) Bali killed him.
(3) The book is on the table.
(4) I arrived before her.
*) In sentence 1. the Noun thief is the Object of the Verb Caught.
*) In sentence 2. the Pronoun him is the Object of the Verb killed.
*) In sentence 3. the Noun table is the Object of the Preposition on
*) In sentence 4. the Pronoun her is the Object of the Preposition before.
"Thief" and" him" which form the Object of a Verb are said to be in the Objective(or Accusative) Case. "Table" and "her" which are governed by a Preposition are also said to be in the Objective Case.
Any Noun(or Pronoun) that is the Object of a Verb or is governed by a Preposition is said to be in the Objective(or Accusative) Case.
NOTE:-To find the Accusative Case put Whom? or What? before the Verb and its Subject.
*) Whom did the policeman catch?The thief.
*) Whom did Bali kill? Him.
46.Examine the following sentences:--
(1) This is Ashok's book.
(2) Raman's pen is broken.
*) In sentence 1, Ashok's answers the questions'whose book'? 'who is the Possessor?' and is said to be in the Genitive (or Possessive) Case.Similarly,
*) Raman's is in the Possessive Case.
The Possessive answers the question---Whose?
FORMATION OF POSSESSIVE CASE:-
47. The Possessive Case of a Singular Noun is formed by adding 's;as,
*) The girl's pen;
*) The horse's tail;
*) The king's palace.
48. The Possessive Case of a Plural Noun end in 's' is formed by adding the apostrophe(')only;as,
*) Boys' books;
*) Birds' nests;
*) Horses' tails;.
49. The Possessive Case of Plural Noun not ending in 's' is fomed by adding's;as,
*) Men's faces;
*) Children's books;
*) Mice's tails;
*) Women's work.
50. The Possessive Case of Singular Nouns is formed by adding the apostrophe only where too many hissing sounds come together;as,
*) Moses' laws;..for conscience' sake;...for righteousness' sake; for justice' sake.
51. When several Nouns are taken together the Possessive sign is used with the last one only;as,
*) Mr Smith,the chemist's shop.
*) The Chairman of the Committee's report.
*) The Government of India's declaration.
*) My father-in-law's house.
*) Huntley and Gardiner's biscuits.
CORRECT USAGE:--
52.(Cathedral,house,school,shop) are sometimes omitted after a Noun in the Possessive Case;as,
>) The prayer for the Queen's life was held at St.Paul's[cathedral].
>) He goes to St.Stephen's[school].
>) I saw her at E.Plomer's[shop].
>) I think there is a baker's[shop] next to butcher's[shop].
53. Mark the distinction between;--
(1) A picture of the King[= a picture presenting the likeness of the King].
(2) A picture of the King's[=a picture of which the King is owner].
54. Note the following:---
*) A friend of Ashok's was on the train.
*) A friend of Ashok's implies that Ashok has more than one friend;Ashok's friend would refer to Ashok's only friend or to a friend previously mentioned.
USE OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE:--
55.The Possessive Case is now used chiefly with Nouns denoting living beings;as,
>) Mohan's pen;
>) The tiger's claws,
>) The bird's nest.
*) So we must say:---
>) The roof of the house[not,the house's roof].
>) The door of the cottage[not,the cottage's door].
56.The Possessive Case is also used with Nouns denoting personified things;as,
>) Fortune's favourite
>) Nature's laws;
>) Duty's call;
>) Sorrow's tears.
57.The Possessive Case is also used with Nouns denoting time,space,weight;as,
>) A day's work
>) A month's holiday
>) A few minutes' rest
>) A hair's breadth
>) A stone's throw
>) A metre's length
>) A ton's weight
>) A kilogram's weight.
58. The Possessive is also used in a few familiar phrases;as,
>) Out of harm's way.
>) At his wit's end.
>) At arm's length.
>) At his finger's crew.
>) His heart's content.
>) For mercy's sake.
>) The journey's end.
>) The boat's crew.
*) The Vocative Case (Nominative of Address)
59. Read the following sentences:---
>) Listen to me,Jack.
>) O Death, where is thy sting?
>) Where are you wandering,my pretty maid?
In these sentences,Jack,Death,maid are the names of the persons or things spoken to or addressed. They are,therefore ,said to be in the Vocative Case.
The Vocative Case(Nominative of ADDRESS) is the case of the person or thing addressed.
THE DATIVE CASE:---
60. Look carefully at the following sentences:----
>) He gave Sheila a pen.
>) He bought John a watch.
>) He told her a story.
*) To whom did he give a pen? To Sheila.
*) For whom did he buy a watch? For John.
*) Whom did he tell a story? Her.
>) The words Sheila,John,her which are Indirect Objects are said to be in the Dative Case.
>) A Noun or Pronoun is in the Dative Case when it forms the Indirect Objects of a Verb
NOTE:--To find the Dative Case ,ask the question 'To Whom?' or 'For whom?'
Exercise 13. Correct the following sentences:---
>) Call at Smith's the chemist.
>) The National Anthem is Rabindra nath Tagore,one of the great poets of India's.
>) The street's width is insufficient.
>) The table's legs are broken.
>) The house's roof fell down.
>) The firm you so much admire is Jack's,John's and William's
>) It was his mother's sister's son's house.
>) I have seen Tagore's , the poet's paintings.
>) This house is of my fater.
>) These are the children's clothes who are bathing.
NOUNS IN APPOSITION:--
61. Read the follwing sentence:---
>) Asoka, the great king,ruled wisely.
We see that Asoka and king refer to one and the some person.The noun king follows the noun Asoka simply to describe Asoka.
When one noun follows another to describe it, the noun which follows is said to be in apposition to the noun which comes before it.
[Apposition means placing near].
A Noun or Pronoun which stands in apposition to a Noun or Pronoun agrees with it in case:
>) I, your father,forbid it.( Nominative Case)
>) Do you dare to disobey me
FUNCTIONAL GRAMMER AND CORRECT USAGE
CHAPTER-1
THE SENTENCE:-
1)When we speak or write we use words.We usually use these words in groups.But any group of words will not necessarily express a complete thought
e.g.:-the hill went up and Jack Jill
Does this group of words make sense?No,it does not.Now arrange these words in their proper order and write:
e.g:-Jack and Jill went up the hill.
This makes complete sense.A group of words that makes complete sense is called a Sentence.
KINDS OF SENTENCE:--
2). Sentences can do four kinds of things.A sentence can---
(1) Make a statement;as,
> The sun rises in the east.(Affirmative)
>The sun does not move round the earth.(Negative)
A sentence that states or declares something is called an Assertive or Declarative Sentence.
(2) Ask a question;as,
>Does the sun rise in the east? > Who does not love his country?
A sentence that asks a question is called an Interrogative sentence
(3)Express some command,request,entreaty or wish;as,
> Shut the door.(command) >Lend me your pen,please(Request)
>Help me,O God(.(Entreaty) >God save the Queen.(Wish)
A sentence that expresses a command ,a request,an entreaty or a desire is called
an Imperative Sentence.
(4)Express some strong or sudden feeling;as,
How hot it is! What a foolish boy you are!
A sentence that expresses some strong or sudden feeling is called an Exclamatory Sentence.
NOTE---From the above it is clear that:-
(1) Every sentence begings with a Capital letter.
(2) A Full Stop(.) is placed at the end of every Declarative or Imperative sentence.
(3) A Question Mark(?) is placed at the end of every Interrogative Sentence.
(4) An Exclamation Mark(!) is placed at the end of every Exclamatory sentence.
Exercise 1.Write out the following sentences so that they make sense:-
1) elephant,an ,the,animal,largest is---------?
2) a,noise,make,do,not ------ ?
3) sweet,how,rose,this ,smells ------?
4) a,year,months,how,many,are,in,there ------?
5) and,milk,butter,cheese,are,made
6) girl,what,are,you,a ,clever --------?
7) flower,from,to,flower,fly,bees ------?
8) blames,a,workman,bad,his,tools ------?
9) wife,children,and,he,his,care,takes,of ------?
10) his,country,love,does,who,not ------?
Exercise2. Say whether each of the following sentences is ASSERTIVE,....IMPERATIVE,...INTERROGATIVE OR EXCLAMATORY:-
1) keep off the grass ----------?
2) what nonsense you talk! ----------?
3) God save our Queen. ----------?
4) Let us keep our promise. -----------?
5) Have you lost your book? ----------?
6) How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank! ?
7) What a piece of work is man! ------------?
8) Honesty is the best policy. ------------? .
9) Do not depend too much on the help of others ---?
10) The earth goes round the sun. -----------?
11)Mind your own business. -----------?
12)How old is your elder sister? -----------?
13)What a beautiful night it is! -----------?
14)May God bless you with health. -----------?
15)What is the time by your watch -----------?
16)Lend me your pen,please. -----------?
17)What a fool you are! -----------?
19)Animals do not laugh.------------?
20)No news is good news.-------------?
CHAPTER-2
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
3. Every sentence consists of two parts,expressed or understood:--
(1) The part which names the person or thing we speak about.
This part of the sentence is called the SUBJECT.
(2) What is said of the person or thing denoted by the subject.
This part of the sentence is called the PREDICATE.
4. Notice how these sentences are divided into subject and predicate:---
SUBJECT PREDICATE
1 We have done our duty
2 Birds fly in the air
3 A bad workman blames his tools
4 The rich are not always happy
5 The early bird cathes the worm.
5.The subject does not always come at the beginning of the sentence:-
1) How badly you sing! 3) Across the path lay a frozen snake.
2) Down dropped the breeze. 4) Sweet are the uses of adversity.
SUBJECT PREDICATE
You sing how badly
The breeze dropped down
A frozen snake lay across the path
The uses of adversity are sweet
6. In Imperative sentences the Subject is generally left out;as,
Do this. [Here the Subject You is understood.]
Thank you.[Here theSubject I is understood.]
Exercise 3.Divide the following sentences into SUBJECT and PREDICATE:-
1) A barking sound the shepherd hears.
2) Don't make a noise.
3) The country is lovely in autumn.
4) The boy stood on the burning deck.
5) The stars are shining brightly.
6) The sun went down.
7)Work hard.
8) Darkness came quickly on.
9) Down fell the mango.
10) Strange are the ways of God.
11) Stone walls do not a prison make.
12) No man can serve two masters.
13) The singing of the birds delights us.
14)Swimming is the best kind of exercise.
15)Delhi,the capital of India,stands on the Jumna.
EXERCISE 4. Add suitable Predicates to the following Subjects:-
1.The earth---------------------?
2. The stars--------------------?
3.A good boy-------------------?
4.A stationar-------------------?
5.A butcher---------------------?
6.Our class--------------------?
7.Our headmaster------------?
8.The sun-----------------------?
9.The Queen of England----?
10.Our Prime Minister-------?
EXERCISE 5.Add suitable Subjects to the following Predicates:-
1) -----------consists of thirty pupils.
2)------------is always likes by his teachers.
3)-----------opened the Exhibition.
4)-----------does not move round the earth.
5)-----------revolves round the sun.
6)-----------are shining brightly in the sky.
7)-----------lives in Delhi.
8)----------make one rupee.
9)----------sells meat.
10)--------is very strict.
CHAPTER-3
THE PHRASE AND THE CLAUSE:-
7.Examine the groups of words in italics in the following sentences:-
1. The sun sets in the west.
2. I must start in a short time.
3.I shot an arrow into the air.
4.It lies beneath my window.
>)These groups of words make sense,but not complete sense.They have no Subject or Predicate of their own.Such groups of words are called PHRASES.
>)A group of words that makes sense,but not complete sense,is called a PHRASE.
8.Examine the groups of words in italics in the following sentences:-
1.God helps those who help themselves.
2.This is the beggar whom we saw yesterday.
3.I know what she wants.
Here (who help themselves) is a sentence,because it has a subject(who) and a Predicate(help themselves).Similarly ,(whom we saw yesterday) is a sentence,having a Subject(we) and a Predicate(saw yesterday).What she wants is also a sentence,because is has a Subject(she) and a Predicate(wants).Such groups of words are called CLAUSES.
A group of words which forms part of a larger sentence,and contains a subject and a predicate,is called a CLAUSE.
Exercise 6.Say whether the groups of words in italics in the following sentences are phrases or clauses:-
1).This is the house where he lived.---?
2).Make hay while the sun shines.---?
3).Strike the iron while it is hot.----?
4).Show me how to do it.---?
5).It was a scene of great beauty.---?
6).He did it for my sake.---?
7).He worked for three hours.---?
8).The snow has fallen without a sound.
9).People who are selfish are disliked by all.--?
10).Her virtue won her respect.--?
CHAPTER-4
PARTS OF SPEECH:--
9.Words are classified according to the particular work they do in a sentence.
The particular work which a word does is called its function.
The Parts OF Speech are the classes into which words are divided according to their function in a sentence.
10.There are eight parts of speech:-
(1).Noun..A Noun is the name of a person,placeor thing.
>)Asoka was a noble king. >)The sun rises in the east.
>)Delhi is on the jumna. >)Her virtue won her honour.
NOTE:---The words thing means,
(1) all objects that we can see,hear,smell,touch ,or taste;
(2) something that we can think of.
(2).PRONOUN..A Pronoun is a word used instead of a Noun.
>)As Raman is ill,he will not come to school.
>)When the tiger saw the man,it sprang upon him.
(3).ADJECTIVE..An Adjective is a word used to qualify(that is,to add something to the meaning of)a Noun.
>)The rose is a beautiful flower.
>)Ashok is a brave boy.
>)Twenty soldiers were killed.
(4).VERB..A Verb is a word used for saying something about a person ,place,or thing.
>)The poor girl cried bitterly.
>)Bombay is a big city.
>)Virtue is its own reward.
(5).ADVERB..An adverb is a word which qualifies a Verb.Adjective or another Adverb.
>)He runs quickly.
>)This painting is very beautiful.
>)The sun was shining so brightly.
(6).PREPOSITION..A Preposition is a word used with a Noun or Pronoun to show its relation to some other words in the sentence.
>)The cat is Lying on the table.
>)The king then sat under a tree.
>)Sita is fond of music.
(7).CONJUCTION..A Conjuction is a word used to join together words,phrases or sentences.
>)Two and two makes four.(words)
>)He was a man of courage but of no reputataion.(Phrases)
>)She is fond of music,but hates dancing.(Sentences)
(8).INTERJECTION..An Interjection is an exclamatory word,denoting some sudden feeling.
>) Hurrah!we have won the match.
>) Hark!the bugles call.
>) Alas!poor Kamala is dead.
11.A word must be classified accordng to its function in the particular sentence in which it is used,and not according to its appearance.The same word does not always belong to the same Part of Speech;as it changes its function,so it changes its classification.
1).He threw a stone at her. (Noun)
2).Stone walls do not a prison make.(Adjective)
3).Stone him to death.(Verb)
Exercise 7.Name the part of speech of each italicized word in the followin sentences:--
1). We had a severe winter ten years ago.-----?
2). They always winter in the south.-----?
3). He will come to us during the winter holidayz.
4). Rest a while.---?
5). Don't while away your time in playing indoor games.
6). Make hay while the sun shines.---?
7). Still waters run deep.---?
8). He still blames me.---?
9). He stole out of the house in the still of night.
10). We shall go out when the wind and the storm are still.
11). Water the plants.
12). He is in hot water.---?
13). He is blind in one eye.---?
14). They eye her with suspicion.---?
CHAPTER-5
THE NOUN:THE KINDS OF NOUNS:--
12.A Noun is the name of a person ,place,or
thing;as,Arsalan,Delhi,Cat,table,steel,cleverness,goodness,beauty.
NOTE:--In ordinary language the word thing denotes that which has no life,but here the word thing means any object or abstract idea we can think about,whether it has a real existence or not.
KINDS OF NOUNS
13.Nouns are of five different kinds:---
1).Concrete {Proper,Common,Collective,Material}
2).Abstract
14.Study the following sentences:---
>) Akbar was a wise king.
>) Rama is a clever boy.
>) Bombay is a big city.
*).Here Akbar is the name of a particular king,while the Noun king can be applied to all kings.
*).Similarly,Rama is the name of a particular boy,while boy can be applied to all boys.
*).Bombay, is the name of a particular city,while city can be applied to all cities.
So Akbar,Rama,Bombay which refer to a particular person or place are called Proper Nouns.
A Proper Noun is the name of a particular person or place.
[A Proper Noun is always written with a Capital Letter.]
King,boy,city which denotes no one person or thing in particular,but are common to any and every person or thing of the same kind,are called Common Nouns.
A Common Noun is a name which is common to any and every person or thing of the same kind.
NOTE:--A Proper Noun may be used as a Common Noun.
1). He is a Burke(=the greatest orator) of his age.
2). He is the shakespeare(=the greatest dramatist) of India.
15. A Collective Noun denotes a number of persons or things grouped together as one complete whole;as,
e.g;Crowd,..flock,..fleet,..herd,..committee,..family,...nation,...team,..
.parliament,...mob,..regiment,...assembly.
*)The crowd was very big. A crowd=a collection of people.
*)The English army won the day. A flock=a collection of sheep.
*)The jury found him guilty. A fleet=a collection of ships.
*)A fleet of fifty ships left the harbour.
16. A distinction is generally made between a Collective Nouns and a Noun of Multitude.
(1). A Collective Noun denotes one individual whole;and hence the Verb is singular;as,
e.g;..The Committee consists of twelve members.
(2). A Noun of Multitude denotes the individuals of the group;and hence the Verb is plural,although the Noun is singular.
e.g;..The Committee (=the members composing the Committee) are quarrelling among themselves.
17.A Noun of Material denotes the matter or substance of which things are made;as.gold,silver,iron,glass,cotton,wool,clay,steel,stone.
eg;..>) Ornaments are made of silver and gold.
>) Bottles are made of glass.
>) Clothes are made of cotton,wool, and silk.
18.An Abstract Noun is the name of some quality ,state or action considered(or imagined) to be apart from the thing to which it belongs.
*)Quality:---Cleverness,goodness,kindsness,wisdom.
*)State:---Poverty,youth,manhood,childhood,boyhood,death,sickness,slavery.
*)Action:--Laughter,theft,movement,flight,revenge.
NOTE:--A Concrete Noun denotes a thing which can be perceived by the senses.It can be seen ,touched,heard,smelt, or tasted; and has also a separate existence.
*)An Abstract Noun relates to something which cannot actually be perceived by the senses,and which is considered apart from the object to which it belongs.
e.g;..,we know iron is hard,..stone is hard,..marble is hard
They all possess the quality of hardness.We can think of this quality,i.e., hardness apart from iron,stone or marble.Hence hardness is an Abstract Noun;while iron,stone, and marble are Concrete Nouns.
Exercise 8:-.Point out the Nouns in the following sentences ,and say whether they are Proper,Common,Collective,Material or Abstract:--
1).A black-board is made of wood.
2).Poverty is a curse.
3).Sweet are the uses of adversity.
4).A gang of robbers entered the city at night.
5).The army was defeated.
6).Delhi is the capital of India.
7).The committee has approved of his appointment.
8).Engines are made of iron.
9).Work is worship.
10).Gold and silver have I noun.
11).The jury were divided in their opinions.
12).London is the capital of England.
13).Calcutta stands on the Hooghly.
14).Health is wealth.
15).The crew was a fine one.
16).Parliament will meet next month.
17).I saw a flock of sheep in the field.
18).Patience and preseverance can overcome mountains.
19).Our school team won the match.
20).Our class consists of twenty boys and ten girls.
21).Cleanliness is next to godliness.
CHAPTER-6
THE NOUN:GENDER:-
19. There are four Genders in English:--
(1) .The names of male animals or persons are said to be of the MASCULINE GENDER;as,man,boy,lion,hero,king,father.
(2).The names of female animals or persons are said to be of the FEMININE GENDER; as,women,girl,lioness,heroine,queen,mother.
(3).The names of things which indicate either the masculine or the feminine are said to be of the COMMON GENDER ;as,baby,child,cousin,servant,parent,friend,pupil,person,student,orphan,monarch,relation,teacher,deer,sheep,calf,neighbour.
(4).The names of things that are neither male nor female(i.e.,things without life) are said to be of Neuter Gender;as,...book,lable,chair,tree,pen,stone.
[Neuter means neither,i.e,. neither male nor female.]
WAYS OF FORMING THE FEMININE OF NOUNS
20.There are three ways of forming the Feminine of Nouns:--
1.By a change of word
*)Masculine :- *)Feminine:-
>Bachelor >maid,spinster
>Boar >sow
>Boy >girl
>Brother >sister
>Buck >doe
>Bull(or ox) >cow
>Bullock >heifer
>Cock >hen
>Colt >filly
>Dog >bitch
>Drake >duck
>Drone >bee
>Earl >countess
>Father >mother
>Gander >goose
>Gentleman >lady
>Hart >roe
>Horse >mare
>Husband >wife
>King >queen
>Lord >lady
>Man >woman
>Monk(or friar) >nun
>Nephew >niece
>Papa >mamma
>Ram >ewe
>Sir >madam
>Son >daughter
>Stag >hind
>Swain >nymph
>Uncle >aunt
>Wizard >witch
2.By Adding -ess to the Masculine
(1) The following Feminines are formed by simply adding -ess to the Masculine:--
*)Masculine *)Feminine
>Author >authoress
>Baron >baroness
>Count >countess
>Giant >giantess
>Heir >heiress
>Host >hostess
>Jew >jewess
>Lion >lioness
>Manager >manageress
>Mayor >mayoress
>Patron >patroness
>Peer >peeress
>Poet >poetress
>Priest >priestess
>Prophet >prophetess
>Shepherd >shepherdess
>Steward >stewardess
>Viscount >viscountess
(2)The followng Feminines are formed by adding -ess to the Masculine,after omitting the vowel of the last syllable of the Masculine:--
*)Masculine *)Feminine
>Actor >actress
>Ambassador >ambassadress
>Benefactor >benefactress
>Conductor >conductress
>Emperor >empress
>Enchanter >enchantress
>Founder >foundress
>Governer >governess
>Hunter >huntress
>Inspector >inspectress
>Instructor >instructress
>Negro >negress
>Prince >princess
>Songster >songstress
>Sorcerer >sorceress
>Tempter >temptress
>Tiger >tigeress
>Traitor >traitress
>Waiter >waitress
(3) By adding -ess to the Masculine in a less regular way:--
*)Masculine *)Feminine
>Abbot >abbess
>Duke >duchess
>God >goddess
>Lad >lass
>Master(boy) >miss(girl)
>Mr >Mrs
>Marquis >marchioness
>Schoolmaster >schoolmistress
3.By placing a word before or after
*)Masculine *)Feminine
>Beggar-man >beggar-woman
>Bull-calf >cow-calf
>Cock-sparrow >hen-sparrow
>He-goat >she-goat
>Grandfather >grandmother
>Greatuncle >greataunt
>Landlord >landlady
>Man-servant >maid-servant
>Milkman >milkmaid
>Merman >mermaid
>Peacock >peahen
>Washerman >washerwoman
21.Study the following Masculines and Feminines:--
*)Masculine *)Feminine
>Administrator >Administratrix
>Bridegroom >bride
>Czar >czarina
>Executor >executrix
>Fox >vixen
>Hero >heroine
>Prosecutor >prosecutrix
>Signor >signora
>Sultan >sultana
>Testator >testatrix
>Viceroy >vicereine
>Widower >widow
22.collective Nouns,even when they denote living beings,are considered to be of the Neuter Gender;as,
*) The jury has given its verdict.
*) The committee has changed its opinion.
23.Animals and young children may be either distinguished by their sex or regarded as of neither sex and spoken of in the Neuter Gender.When speaking of a very young child we may say---
*) The child knows his(or her)own mind. Or
*) The child knows its own mind.
But it is ridiculous to say---
*)Look at John.How merrily it is playing!
We must say---
*)Look at John.How merrily he is playing!
24.Gender of Personified Objects.Sometimes objects without life are spoken of as if they were persons.They are regarded as males or females.
(1) Things remarkable for strength,firmness,or energy are regarded as males;as,the Sun,Time,Death,Winter,Summer,Thunder,Ocean.
*) Then the sun shot his bright rays.
*) Death always knows his victim.
(2) Things remarkable for beauty,gracefulness,gentleness are regarded as females;as,the Moon,Earth,Nature,Spring,Hope,Virtue,Charity,Mercy,Faith,Peace.
*)The moon shed her light on the bank.
*)Spring has her own charms and delights.
*)Love Virtue;she slone is free.
*)Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war.
NOTE:--A ship is always spoken of as she;as,
*) The ship fought her way through the stormy waves.
Exercise 9.Rewrite the following sentences changing the Gender of the Nouns and making other necessary changes:--
1. His mother took him to the Zoo where he had a look at the lions,tigers,stags,rams, and the peacocks.
2. The negro accompanied by his wife and daughters came to the king's palace.
3. The poet,the priest, and the Prophet are always inspired by a high deal.
4. The count married a rich heiress, a lass of fifteen, who was a jewess by birth.
5. The Duke called the hunter to his presence and asked him how he had caught the tiger.
6. The ways of the temper,the enchanter,the wizard, and the sorcerer are the same.
7. The prince declared that author had been his sole benefactor.
8. The abbot declared that the waiter was a traitor and murderer.
9. The Mayor was the patron of art and learning.
10. This shepherd once acted as a host to the Marquis.
11. His uncle is a widower and his brother is a bachelor.
12. The landlady accompanied by her maidservants went to the temple to pray to the goddess for her husband's speedy return.
13. The conductor led the king his wife to the emperor.
14. When the queen saw her father she alighted from her horse and knelt before him.
15. The monk played the part of the hero.
CHAPTER-7
THE NOUN:NUMBER
25). There are two numbers in English---(1) the Singular,and(2) the Plural.
*). A Noun that denotes one person or thing is said to be in the Singular Number;as,
Man,boy,girl,cow,knife,table,book,chair.
*). A Noun that denotes more than one person or thing is said to be in the Plural Number;as,
Men,boys,girls,cows,knives,tables,books,chairs.
WAYS OF FORMING THE PLURAL OF NOUNS:--
26). The Plural of Nouns is fored according to the following rules:--
(1) The Plural of Nouns is generally formed by adding -s to the Singular;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Blow >) blows
>) Garden >) gardens
>) Hand >) hands
>) House >) houses
>) Map >) maps
>) Star >) stars
>) Stick >) sticks
>) Stone >) stones
(2). Nouns ending in ch(soft),s,sh,x or z form the Plural by adding -es to the Singular;as,
*)Singular *) Plural
>) Bench >) benches
>) Box >) boxes
>) Brush >) brushes
>) Dish >) dishes
>) Gas >) gases
>) Glass >) glasses
>) Loss >) losses
>) Quiz >) quizzes
>) Tax >) taxes
>) Watch >) watches
(3) Nouns ending in y,preceded by a consonant,form the Plural by changing y into ies;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Army >) armies
>) Baby >) babies
>) City >) cities
>) Duty >) duties
>) Fly >) flies
>) Lady >) ladies
>) Pony >) ponies
>) Story >) stories
But if the final y is preceded by a vowel(as in ay,ey,or oy), the PLural is formed by adding -s to the Singular;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Chimney >) chimneys
>) Day >) days
>) Journey >) journeys
>) key >) keys
>) Pay >) pays
>) Play >) plays
>) Ray >) rays
>) Storey >) storeys
>) Toy >) toys
>) Valley >) valleys
NOTE:--Nouns ending in quy form Plural in ies;as,soliloquy,soliloquies.
(4) Nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant,generally form the Plural by adding -es to the Singular ;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Buffalo >) buffaloes
>) Calico >) calicoes
>) Cargo >) cargoes
>) Echo >) echoes
>) Hero >) heroes
>) Mango >) mangoes
>) Mosquito >) mosquitoes
>) Motto >) mottoes
>) Negro >) negroes
>) Potato >) potatoes
>) Torpedo >) torpedoes
>) Volcano >) volcanoes
But all words ending in oo,io,eo, or yo, and some words ending in o preceded by a consonant form the Plural by adding -s to the Singular;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Bamboo >) bamboos
>) Cameo >) cameos
>) Canto >) cantos
>) Cuckoo >) cuckoos
>) Curio >) curios
>) Dynamo >) dynamos
>) Embryo >) embryos
>) Photo >) photos
>) Piano >) pianos
>) Portfolio >) portfolios
>) Ratio >) ratios
>) Quarto >) quartos
>) Stereo >) stereos
>) Studio >) studios
NOTE:--But grotto,halo and memento have two plurals;grottos,grotteos;halos,haloes;mementos,mementoes.
(5) Nouns ending in f or fe form the Plural by changing f or fe into ves;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Calf >) calves
>) Elf >) elves
>) Half >) halves
>) Knife >) knives
>) Leaf >) leaves
>) Life >) lives
>) Loaf >) loaves
>) Sheaf >) sheaves
>) Shelf >) shelves
>) Thief >) thieves
>) Wife >) wives
>) Wolf >) wolves
But Nouns ending in ff,eef,oof,ief, and rf, and some Nouns ending in f form the PLural by adding -s to the Singular;as,
*)Singular *)Plural
>) Belief >) beliefs
>) Chief >) chiefs
>) Cliff >) cliffs
>) Dwarf >) dwarfs
>) Grief >) griefs
>) Gulf >) gulfs
>) Handkerchief >) handkerchiefs
>) Hoof >) hoofs
>) Mischief >) mischiefs
>) Proof >)proofs
>)Puff >) puffs
>) Reef >) reefs
>) Roof >) roofs
>) Scarf >) scarfs
>) Staff >) staffs
>) Stuff >) stuffs
>) Turf >) turfs
>) Wharf >) wharfs
NOTE:-(1) There are at least three Nouns ending in fe which form the Plural by simply adding -s;as,
safe--safes; strife--strifes; fife--fifes.
(2) Some take both forms;as,
Hoof--hoofs, hooves; scarf--scarfs,scarves; staff--staffs,staves; wharf--wharfs,wharves.
(3) Thief makes thieves.
27. The following Nouns form their Plural by a change of the inside vowel;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Dormouse >) dormice
>) Foot >) feet
>) Goose >) geese
>) Louse >) lice
>) Man >) men
>) Mouse >) mice
>) Tooth >) teeth
>) Woman >) women
28. A few Nouns make Plurals as in Old English.by adding -n or -ne to the Singular and sometimes altering the vowels;as,
Ox,oxen;{child,children;}{cow,kine(more commonly cows');}{ brother,brethren(more commonly 'brothers').}
29. A Compound Noun generally forms its Plural by adding -s to the principal word;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Foot-man >) foot-men
>) Hanger-on >) hangers-on
>) Looker-on >) lookers-on
>) Man-of-war >) men-of-war
>) passer-by >) passers-by
>) Son-in-law >) sons-in-law
>) Step-son >) step-sons
>) Washer-man >) washer-men
>) Coat-of-mail >) coats-of-mail
>) Commander-in-chief >) commanders-in-chief
>) Court-martial >) court-martial
>) Daughter-in-law >) daughters-in-law
>) Father-in-law >) fathers-in-law
>) Knight-errant >) knights-errant
>) Major-general >) major-generals
>) Maid-servant >) maid-servants
>) Mother-in-law >)mothers-in-law
>) Spend-thrift >) spend-thrifts
>) Step-daughter >) step-daughters
*)There are four Compound Nouns which take a double Plural;as,
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Knight-templar >) Knights-Templars
>) Lord-justice >) lords-justices
>) Man-servant >) men-servants
>) Woman-servant >) women-servants
NOTE:--(1) We say mouthfuls,spoonfuls,handfuls because they are regarded as one word.
(2) Compound Nouns ending in man form their Plurals by changing the vowel;as,
Kinsman,kinsmen; nobleman,noblemen; Dutchman,Dutchmen;
Frenchman,Frenchmen; Englishman,Englishmen; statesman,statesmen.
But the Plurals of Northman(Northmans), Brahman(Brahmans), Musalman(Musalmans), Turcoman(Turcomans).
30. Some foreign words have foreign Plurals;as,
(1)Latin
*) Singular *) Plurals
>) Addendum >) addenda
>) Alumnus >) alumni
>) Apparatus >) apparatuses
>) Appendix >) {appendices,appendixes}
>) Curriculum >) {curricula,curriculums}
>) Datum >) data
>) Dictum >) {dicta,dictums}
>) Erratum >) errata
>) Focus >) foci(focuses)
>) Formula >) {formulae,formulas}
>) Genius >) {geniuses(genii)}
>) Index >) {indices,indexes}
>) Medium >) {mediums,media}
>) Memorandum >) { memoranda,memorandums}
>) Radius >) radii
>) Stratum >) strata
>) Syllabus >) {syllabi,syllabuses}
>) Terminus >) {termini,terminuses}
(2) Greek.
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Analysis >) analyses
>) Axis >) axes
>) Basis >) bases
>) Crises >) crises
>) Criterion >) criteria
>) Hypothesis >)hypotheses
>) Oasis >) oases
>) Parenthesis >) parentheses
>) Phenomenon >) phenomena
>) Thesis >) theses
(3) Italian,French and Hebrew.
*) Singular *) Plural
> Bandit >) {banditti,bandits}
>) Bureau >) {bureaux,bureaus}
>) Cherub >) {cherubim,cherubs}
>) Madam >) {mesdames}
>) Monsieur >) messieurs
>) Seraph >){seraphim,seraphs}
31. Some Nouns have the same form in the Plural as in the Singular;as, deer,sheep,swine,cod,trout,salmon.
CORRECT USAGE:--
32.Several Nouns used in counting ,when preceded by Numerals, are unaltered in the Plural;as,score,dozen,gross,hundred,million,brace,pair,couple,stone,hundredweight.
>). His father has reached the age of four score and ten
>). This watch cost me three hundred rupees.
>). I bought two dozen mangoes.
>). Twenty hundredweight make one ton.
NOTE:-Gross has no plural form,and is always followed by of.We say--a gross of pins,two gross of pins.
33.Some Nouns are found only in the Plural.
(1). Names of pairs of tings which are usually inseperable;as,pincers,tongs,scissors,snuffers,trousers,braces,spectacles,bellows.[Spectacle is used in the Singular in the sense of a 'sight']
(2). Names of things not generally thought of singly;as,entrails,bowels,victuals,vitals,eatables,movables,valuables.
(3). Names of games;as,billiards,draughts.
(4). Names of diseases;as,measles,mumps.
(5). Some miscellaneous Nouns;as,thanks,nupitals,wages,tidings,proceeds(of sale),assets,environs,obsequies,premises(in the sense of houses,lands,etc).
34. Some Nouns originally Singular are now generally used in the Plural;as,
>)Alms--She gave alms to the blind beggar,and for these he thanked her.
>)Eves--The eves are not yet finished.
>)Riches-Riches have wings.
35.The following Nouns are genarlly used in the Singular:--
>) Mathematics--Mathematics is a difficult subject.
>) News---The news is too good to be true.
>) Innings---The first innings is not yet over.
>) Physics---Physics is his favourite study.
>) Politics---Politics is not meant for young boys
>) Gallows---A gallows has been erected.
"Means" is used either as Singular or Plural.But when it means"wealth",it is always Plural;as,
>) This is simply a means to an end.
>) By these means he passed the examination.
>) His means are small.
36. Some Collective Nouns,though Singular in form,are always treated as Plural;as,
>) Cattle.-- These cattle belong to Mr Smith.
>) People.-- Many people [persons] were in the streets.
>) Vermin.--Vermin have destroyed the crops.
>) Poultry.--These poultry are mine.
>) Gentry.-- The gentry were present there.
NOTE:--When people is used in the sense of "nation",the Plural is peoples;as,
>) The English are a brave people.(Singular)
>) Asia is inhabited by many peoples.(Plural)
37. The following words are generally used only in the Singular form:--
>) Abuse.---He showered abuse(bad language) on her for no fault.
>) Alphabet.--He has learnt the alphabet.
>) Information.--I shall give you the information you need.
>) Furniture---The whole furniture was spoilt by rain.
>) Offspring---These four sons are my offspring.
>) Poetry---Milton wrote very good poetry(poems).
>) Scenery--The scenery of Kashmir is charming.
38. Note the following Plurals:
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Mr >) Messrs
>) Mr >) { Messrs White,or the Mr Whites}
>) Mrs >) Mesdames
>) Miss Brown >) {Misses Brown,or the Miss Browns}
39. The Plural of letters,figures, and symbols is formed by adding an apostrophe and s;as,
>) Mark your p's and q's.
>) Add two 5's and three 4's.
>) Four B.A's and three M.A's applied for the post.
40. Abstract Nouns have strictly no Plural; as, hope,love,kindness, When such words are used in the Plural they become Common Nouns;as,
>) Kindnesses=acts of kindness.
>) Generosities=acts of generosity.
*) Material Nouns also are not used in the Plural;as,copper,tin,stone,iron. When used in the Plural they become Common Nouns and are used in a different sense;as,
>) Coppers=copper coins.
>) Tins=boxes or cans made of tin.
>) Stones=small pieces of stone.
>) Irons= fetters or different kinds of iron.
41.Some Nouns have two forms for the Plural ,with differnt meanings:--
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Brother { brothers,sons of same father.
{ brethren,members of the same society.
>) Appendix { appendixes,small outgrowth on the surface of an organ.
{ appendices,something added,especially at the end of a book.
>) Cloth { cloths,kinds or pieces of cloth.
{ clothes,garments for wear.
>) Die { dies,stamps for coining.
{ dice,small cubes used in gaming.
>) Fish { fish,taken collectively.
{ fishes,taken separately.
>) Genius { geniuses,men of great genius or talent.
{ genii,imaginary spirits of the air.
>) Index { indexes, tables of contents to books.
{ indices,sings used in algebra
>) Penny { pennies,denotes the number of coins;as,six pennies.
{ pence, a sum of money,viewed as a whole;as,ten pence.
>) Shot { shot,the small balls fired from a gun;as,Have you any shot left.
{ shots, the separate acts of shooting;as, He had five shots.
>) Staff {staffs,bodies of skilled officers.
{ staves,sticks or poles.
42. Some Nouns have one meaning in the Singular ,and two in the Plural:_-
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Colour:(colour). * Colours{ 1. Kinds of colour.
{ 2.The flag of a regiment.
>) Custom:(usual practice). Customs{ 1.Usual practices.
{ 2. Duty levied upon imports from foreign countries.
>) Effect:(result). Effects { 1. Results
{ 2.Property
>) Letter{ 1. Of alphabet. Letters { 1.Letters of the alphabet.
{ 2.A letter written { 2. Letters written to others.
to someone. { 3. Literature.
>) Manner:(method). Manners{ 1. Methods
{ 2. Corerct behaviour.
>) Moral:( a moral lesson). Morals{ 1. Moral lessons.
{ 2. Conduct.
>) Number:(a quantity). Numbers { 1. Quantities.
{ 2. Verses.
>) Pain :(suffering). Pains{ 1. Sufferings.
{ 2. Care,exertion;as, No pains,no gains.
>) Part:(portion). Parts { 1. Portions.
{ 2. Abilities.
>) Premise:{ a statement or Premises{ 1. Propositions.
proposition). { 2. Surroundings to a house.
>) Quarter: (a fourth part). Quarters { 1. Fourth parts.
{ 2. Lodgings.
>) Spectacle:( a sight). Spectacles{ 1. Sights
{ 2. Eye-glasses.
43. Some Nouns have one meaning in the Singular and another in the Plural:---
*) Singular *) Plural
>) Advice:(counsel). >) Advices:(information).
>) Air:(atmosphere). >) Airs:(affected manners).
>) Compass:{ 1. extent. >) Compasses:{ an instrument for measuring}
{ 2. mariner's
compass
>) Copper:(a metal). >) Coppers:(coins made of copper).
>) Force:(strength or energy). >) Forces:( army).
>) Good: (benefit). >) Goods:( property).
>) Iron: ( a metal). >) Irons:(fetters made of iron).
>) Physic: ( medicine). >) Physics:( natural science).
>) Respect: ( regard). >) Respects:( compliments).
>) Return:( coming back). >) Returns:( statistics).
Exercise 10. Write out the following sentences,changing the Nouns in brackets into the Plural Number:--
>) The (negro) were not fond of(tomato);they preferred(potato).
>) The (lady) were stung by (mosquito).
>) The (hero) rode on their(pony).
>) They paid (tax) on the ( cargo).
>) The (wolf) attacked the(calf) but were driven by a group of(dwarf).
>) The (cry) of the(wolf) made(echo) among the(reef).
>) The (thief) hid themselves among the(bamboo).
>) The (Volcano) throw out molten lava.
>) The(actress) played the (piano).
>) Most(child) as well as (man) and (woman) ,and even(baby),have bad (tooth).
>) I saw a group of (mouse) chasing the farmers (wife) who cut off their (tail) and (nose) and blinded their (eye) with their ( knife).
>) These (box) are full of (watch).
Exercise 11. Correct the following sentences:---
>) The sceneries of Kashmir are very charming.
>) The negroes have dirty hairs.
>) The news are good.
>) That house is built of stones.
>) Do you like these poetries?
>) Five hundreds men were present there.
>) I bought two dozens oranges.
>) The solitary Reaper is a nice poetry.
>) We must take pity on poor blinds.
>) Poors are always with us.
>) Politics are not meant for young boys.
>) I do not were trouser.
>) Father-in-lawas loves their son-in-laws.
>) His cattles are grazing in the fields.
>) Please cut it with a scissors.
>) Physics are an interesting subject.
>) I saw four deers in the field.
>) Such phenomenon are seen on the Red Sea
>) This car cost me forty thousands rupees.
>) What are the criterions of success in life?
Exercise 12. Write out the following sentences choosing the correct form of the Verbs given in brackets:----
>) No news (is,are) good news.
>) Evil(was,were) the news we heard.
>) The tiding(is,are) false.
>) The odds (is,are) against us.
>) The gallows(has,have) just been erected.
>) Mathematics(is,are) his favourite study.
>) Riches(have,has) wings.
>) Politics(are,is) an inetersting subject.
>) There (is,are) few gentry in this town.
>) Alms(was.were) given to the poor.
>) Thanks(is,are) due to him.
>) Mankind(does,do) not know this.
>) My spectacles (is,are) missing.
>) Measles (is,are) an infectious disease.
>) The second innings(is,are) not yet over.
CHAPTER-8
THE NOUN:THE CASE
44. Read the following sentences:---
(1). The king killed the lion.
(2). He bought a silver watch.
(3).The lion was killed by the king.
*)In sentence 1. ,the Noun king is the Subject of the verb killed.
*)In sentence 2..the Pronoun he is the Subject of the verb bought.
*)In sentence 3.,the Noun lion is the Subject of the Verb was killed.
The Nouns king,lion and the Pronoun he which form the Subject of a Verb are said to be in the Nominative Case.
Any Noun(or Pronoun) that is the Subject of a Verb is said to be in the Nominative Case.
NOTE:--We can always find the Nominative in a sentence by putting Who? or What? before the Verb,Who killed the lion? The king.Who bought a silver watch? He . What was killed by the king? The lion.
45. Read the following sentences:--
(1) The policeman caught the thief.
(2) Bali killed him.
(3) The book is on the table.
(4) I arrived before her.
*) In sentence 1. the Noun thief is the Object of the Verb Caught.
*) In sentence 2. the Pronoun him is the Object of the Verb killed.
*) In sentence 3. the Noun table is the Object of the Preposition on
*) In sentence 4. the Pronoun her is the Object of the Preposition before.
"Thief" and" him" which form the Object of a Verb are said to be in the Objective(or Accusative) Case. "Table" and "her" which are governed by a Preposition are also said to be in the Objective Case.
Any Noun(or Pronoun) that is the Object of a Verb or is governed by a Preposition is said to be in the Objective(or Accusative) Case.
NOTE:-To find the Accusative Case put Whom? or What? before the Verb and its Subject.
*) Whom did the policeman catch?The thief.
*) Whom did Bali kill? Him.
46.Examine the following sentences:--
(1) This is Ashok's book.
(2) Raman's pen is broken.
*) In sentence 1, Ashok's answers the questions'whose book'? 'who is the Possessor?' and is said to be in the Genitive (or Possessive) Case.Similarly,
*) Raman's is in the Possessive Case.
The Possessive answers the question---Whose?
FORMATION OF POSSESSIVE CASE:-
47. The Possessive Case of a Singular Noun is formed by adding 's;as,
*) The girl's pen;
*) The horse's tail;
*) The king's palace.
48. The Possessive Case of a Plural Noun end in 's' is formed by adding the apostrophe(')only;as,
*) Boys' books;
*) Birds' nests;
*) Horses' tails;.
49. The Possessive Case of Plural Noun not ending in 's' is fomed by adding's;as,
*) Men's faces;
*) Children's books;
*) Mice's tails;
*) Women's work.
50. The Possessive Case of Singular Nouns is formed by adding the apostrophe only where too many hissing sounds come together;as,
*) Moses' laws;..for conscience' sake;...for righteousness' sake; for justice' sake.
51. When several Nouns are taken together the Possessive sign is used with the last one only;as,
*) Mr Smith,the chemist's shop.
*) The Chairman of the Committee's report.
*) The Government of India's declaration.
*) My father-in-law's house.
*) Huntley and Gardiner's biscuits.
CORRECT USAGE:--
52.(Cathedral,house,school,shop) are sometimes omitted after a Noun in the Possessive Case;as,
>) The prayer for the Queen's life was held at St.Paul's[cathedral].
>) He goes to St.Stephen's[school].
>) I saw her at E.Plomer's[shop].
>) I think there is a baker's[shop] next to butcher's[shop].
53. Mark the distinction between;--
(1) A picture of the King[= a picture presenting the likeness of the King].
(2) A picture of the King's[=a picture of which the King is owner].
54. Note the following:---
*) A friend of Ashok's was on the train.
*) A friend of Ashok's implies that Ashok has more than one friend;Ashok's friend would refer to Ashok's only friend or to a friend previously mentioned.
USE OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE:--
55.The Possessive Case is now used chiefly with Nouns denoting living beings;as,
>) Mohan's pen;
>) The tiger's claws,
>) The bird's nest.
*) So we must say:---
>) The roof of the house[not,the house's roof].
>) The door of the cottage[not,the cottage's door].
56.The Possessive Case is also used with Nouns denoting personified things;as,
>) Fortune's favourite
>) Nature's laws;
>) Duty's call;
>) Sorrow's tears.
57.The Possessive Case is also used with Nouns denoting time,space,weight;as,
>) A day's work
>) A month's holiday
>) A few minutes' rest
>) A hair's breadth
>) A stone's throw
>) A metre's length
>) A ton's weight
>) A kilogram's weight.
58. The Possessive is also used in a few familiar phrases;as,
>) Out of harm's way.
>) At his wit's end.
>) At arm's length.
>) At his finger's crew.
>) His heart's content.
>) For mercy's sake.
>) The journey's end.
>) The boat's crew.
*) The Vocative Case (Nominative of Address)
59. Read the following sentences:---
>) Listen to me,Jack.
>) O Death, where is thy sting?
>) Where are you wandering,my pretty maid?
In these sentences,Jack,Death,maid are the names of the persons or things spoken to or addressed. They are,therefore ,said to be in the Vocative Case.
The Vocative Case(Nominative of ADDRESS) is the case of the person or thing addressed.
THE DATIVE CASE:---
60. Look carefully at the following sentences:----
>) He gave Sheila a pen.
>) He bought John a watch.
>) He told her a story.
*) To whom did he give a pen? To Sheila.
*) For whom did he buy a watch? For John.
*) Whom did he tell a story? Her.
>) The words Sheila,John,her which are Indirect Objects are said to be in the Dative Case.
>) A Noun or Pronoun is in the Dative Case when it forms the Indirect Objects of a Verb
NOTE:--To find the Dative Case ,ask the question 'To Whom?' or 'For whom?'
Exercise 13. Correct the following sentences:---
>) Call at Smith's the chemist.
>) The National Anthem is Rabindra nath Tagore,one of the great poets of India's.
>) The street's width is insufficient.
>) The table's legs are broken.
>) The house's roof fell down.
>) The firm you so much admire is Jack's,John's and William's
>) It was his mother's sister's son's house.
>) I have seen Tagore's , the poet's paintings.
>) This house is of my fater.
>) These are the children's clothes who are bathing.
NOUNS IN APPOSITION:--
61. Read the follwing sentence:---
>) Asoka, the great king,ruled wisely.
We see that Asoka and king refer to one and the some person.The noun king follows the noun Asoka simply to describe Asoka.
When one noun follows another to describe it, the noun which follows is said to be in apposition to the noun which comes before it.
[Apposition means placing near].
A Noun or Pronoun which stands in apposition to a Noun or Pronoun agrees with it in case:
>) I, your father,forbid it.( Nominative Case)
>) Do you dare to disobey me
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